NOTES

John Keegan, 1993, A History of Warfare, New York, NY: Vintage.

CULTURE

Violence and war are usually more an expression of culture than politics or result of circumstances. (The American War of Independence from England was the first truly political war). Some societies developed military subcultures (British) or military cultures (Huns, Spartans, Romans, Turks, Mongols, Vikings. Cossaks). There are also different cultural styles of warfare and the military (Samurai in Japan, Zulu of southern Africa, Aztecs of central Mexico). Cultural differences may contribute to conflict and war (Christians and Muslims in Crusades). However, if war is a product of culture, then it may be abolished or superseded as a resort for resolving conflicts. For instance, the Romans engaged in almost five centuries of continuous war-making, whereas the ancient Egyptians had some 1,400 years of peace. Continental Europe was mostly peaceful throughout the 19th century (1815-1914). Also many warrior cultures have turned to peace (modern Scandinavians, Switzerland, and Japan).

UNIVERSALITY

Warfare at the "premilitary horizon" was nearly a universal, but fully developed war with a military didn't evolve until the state within the last 4,000 years or so. Still, tools that are readily identifiable as weapons as well as fortifications are first found in the Neolithic some 10,000 years ago. Elements of primitive warfare persist from ancient times, including tentativeness of the encounter, unwillingness to come to hand to hand combat, and association of ritual and ceremony with combat and its aftermath.

TECHNOLOGY

The evolution of weapon technology allowed distance between foes and thus reduced the general inhibition against face-to-face killing. Depersonalization and dehumanization in combat were enhanced by the adoption of military uniforms in the 17th century. The first military academies in Europe developed in the 17th century as well. Iron, phalanx, siegecraft (5,000 YA), the use of horses and then chariots, castles (10th century), gunpowder, artillery (15th century), railroad, and canned food were technological advances that revolutionized warfare. Scale also increased, with the French having an army of one million armed men by the 18th century through conscription. Battle deaths number in the tens of thousands.

ENVIRONMENT

Growing population pressure and the need for territorial expansion ("lebensraum") contribute to warfare (e.g., German invasion of Russsia in WWII). (However, rarely is more than 10% of a population directly involved because of the needs of production for survival of the society). In warfare the military zone of the earth is limited to about one third of it's land surface (10-55 degrees latitude and 90W-135E degrees longitude). Military operations are very limited where land is too high, cold, or arid. Geographically strategic sites or areas are also critical in war (confluence of rivers and trade routes). Major cities developed from former fortress sites (London, Cologne, Vienna). Frontiers were vulnerable to invasions by nomads (Great Wall of China).