NOTES

Myers, Norman, 1996, Ultimate Security: The Environmental Basis of Political Stability, Washington, D.C.: Island Press.

ORGANIZATION

This book builds on previous monographs (e.g., The Primary Source about tropical forests and deforestation) and edited books (especially Gaia: An Atlas of Planet Management). It is organized around an Introduction (Chs. 1-2) which present the basic argument, a set of regional (Chs. 3-9) and global (Chs. 10-14) examples as case studies to illustrate and substantiate the argument, and a concluding section, "The New Security," with recommendations for policy and action from the government to the individual levels (Chs. 15-17). The regional examples are the Middle East, Ethiopia, Sub-Saharan Africa, Philippines, Indian subcontinent, El Salvador, and Mexico. The global examples are population, ozone depletion and global warming, mass extinction of species, environmental refugees, and the synergistic connection.

ARGUMENT

The argument is abstracted in the title of the book--- environmental degradation (including natural resource depletion) is the basis of growing political instability including conflict (e.g., water scarcity in the Middle East, p. x). Ultimate security must rest on a society that is sustainable socially and politically as well as economically, and that in turn means the practical recognition that the world is a single ecological community [Gaia] in which the national and political boundaries of some 200 countries are transcended by environmental problems and corresponding solutions. [In 1992 there were some 30 conflicts in the world, many related at least in part to resources and environmental degradation (218)].

SECURITY

The biggest threat to the security of nations and the international community is non-military, that is, environmental problems (e.g., global warming), and the response must be in large part non-military, including investing more money in the environment and less in the military. [Also thesis stated on p. 226]. The environmental threat is now larger than that of nuclear warfare during the Cold War era. Much of the violence and warfare throughout the world is in part a result of environmental factors (degradation or access to resources), such as in parts of Africa like the Sudan, Chad, Angola, Mozambique (10), Algeria, and the Congo (21).

LINKAGE

The linkage between resources, environment, and conflict, and the issue of environmental security are beginning to be recognized by national and world leaders like Senator Sam Nunn, Robert McNamara, James Baker, Gro Bruntland, Mikhail Gorbachev, UN, (11). The pivotal concept is interdependence (13). Thus, Myers asserts that "... nobody can feel finally secure as long as others are persistently insecure" (16). The essential message (thesis) of this book is that: "Environmental problems can figure as causes of conflict. If we continue on our road to environmental ruin worldwide, they will likely become predominant causes of conflict in the decades ahead.... environment has become a fundamental factor in security issues...." (17). "Each environmental factor serves, to one degree or another, as a source of economic disruption, social tension, and political antagonism" (20). Myers also cautions against overstating the case: "Not all environmental problems lead to conflict, and not all conflicts stem from environmental problems" (21). Nevertheless, environmental factors can be one, if not the, source of conflict, multiply or aggravate other causes of conflict, and shape conflict (23).

NEW OPPORTUNITY

Environmental security presents a new challenge requiring new responses. It also presents a new opportunity. All of these --- challenge, opportunity, and response, are unprecedented (30). As recognized in the famous 1987 Bruntland report (UN World Commission on Environment and Development) --- "Our Earth is one, our world is not" (25). That is, from an ecological perspective the Earth is a unity or single system [e.g., Gaia], but from a human perspective it is a diversity of competing systems (economic, political, cultural). For survival and well-being (individually, nationally, and globally), humanity needs to recognize the common problems of environmental security and respond to them collectively in a appropriate ways. Environmental security is collective security (24-25). Thus, Myers states:

"The bottom line is that we face a time of breakdown or breakthrough. We can allow our global environment to be devastated until it scarcely functions any longer as a habitat for humankind. Or we can accept that we can make peace with one another only by making peace with the Earth" (30). [See box on "What is this thing called security?" on pp. 31-34].

REFUGEES

One of the most serious factors is the split between the developed and developing countries, including trade, poverty, and massive immigration of refugees (variously economic, political, and environmental)(25-27). Environmental refugees currently number about 10 million, and in the future could reach 100 million, especially with global warming (27). The "global experiment" [capitalist industrial economic system] is failing, as evidenced by acid rain, ozone depletion, and global warming. These environmental problems have been recognized only in the last two decades. (How many more have yet to be recognized?]
(Give example of a live frog in a pot of water on a stove a slowly heating up to the boiling point! 28)

SOLUTIONS

Invest more money, science, and technology in the environment and less in the military. If we reduce environmental problems then this will reduce conflicts and accordingly the need for military action. Because military equipment is so enormously expensive, only a faction of the money can go along way toward reducing or solving many environmental problems (217-225). For example, malaria kills one million children annually, and could be eradicated with the equivalent of just six hours of military spending, $700 million (220). [However, Myers doesn't mention how this and other measures would contribute to population growth and in turn environmental problems]. About $3 billion is spent every day on the military, one-third by the USA, and most of the rest by about a dozen northern or developed countries (219, 223). "The problem is not a shortage of money, it is a shortage of vision" (225).

POLICY

"... security interests are under siege from environmental threats. These non-military threats can be met only by non-military responses" (226). There are no boundaries or frontiers on many environmental problems; either they are global (e.g., greenhouse effect), or because of ecological and other interdependence, they extend from the national to the international levels (227). [One implication is that more government leaders should be environmentalists instead of lawyers, military, industrialists, or business people. Accordingly, political ecology becomes a research specialization of increasing strategic significance]. [Myers quotes from the Brandt report which is what he is elaborating on in this book (228-229)]. [Much of this is echoed also in Kaplan's article and book]. National isolationism is not only an anachronistic idea but suicidal, only international cooperation in solving common problems is realistic (231). "Competitive security must now give way to cooperative security" (232). Myers refers to Kenneth Boulding assertion that: "... the greatest threat to national security has become national defense" (233).

NORTH-SOUTH CONFRONTATION

The polarities of global geopolitics have shifted increasingly since the end of the Cold War from East-West to North-South. From the South's perspective, the problems are in the North and involve for the South reducing international debt, increasing international aid, and freeing trade from protectionism (233-236). From the North's perspective the problems are the South's population explosion, misguided economic and political policies and management, and widespread corruption of officials (236-239). In short, the South blames the North, and vice versa, and they have to transcend this stalemate to make progress (238-239).

COMMON PROBLEMS

Even rivals and enemies have found common environmental problems to unite in cooperating to solve for mutual benefit, such as cleaning up the Mediterranean Sea (239- 243). In many instances, American leadership can be crucial (244-246). "Seismic shifts" have occurred--- end of Apartheid in South Africa, fall of the Berlin wall, disintegration of the Soviet Union, and with surprisingly little overt violence (245). The development of the European Community is another seismic shift (257). These suggests that other seismic shifts may occur in the future for the better.

CONCLUSIONS

Myers reiterates his main thesis: "... we can have peace on Earth only through peace with the Earth--- and peace with the Earth only through peace with each other" (250). Environmental security will either be chosen by humankind or forced on it, the latter at much greater cost (250). This necessitates radical rethinking regarding the ways of nations, the makeup of the global community, the supportive role of our environments, and the changing nature of our security (252). Myers quotes anthropologist Margaret Mead: "Never doubt that a small group of thoughtful committed citizens can change the world. Indeed, it's the only thing that ever has" (254). At the individual level Myers recommends 5 actions: support environmental organizations, write letters to government representatives, be more environmentally friendly (reduce waste, maximize recycling, etc.), be more aware of and reduce your impact on other parts of the planet, watch and act wisely as humanity approaches the turning point (254-256). Myers cites a number of positive or successful examples such as Thailand's marked reduction in average family size from six to two, and Cost Rica's lack of a regular military in the Central American neighborhood of conflict and violence, and Colombia's return of a large portion of its Amazon to the indigenous peoples (259-261). However, one of the biggest challenges is to develop a higher loyalty, that is, to fellow humankind, or a sense of global citizenship (263).

[NOTE:

ethnic diversity as a centrifugal force may be balanced by global environmental problems as a centripetal force]