Comprehensive Discourse Analysis
and Its Applications
Part 2

© 1983
Dr. Leon James and Dr. Diane Nahl

The most crucial feature of information is its utility or usability. There are three aspects
of information which jointly determine its usability:

Relevance, accuracy, and completeness add up to usability of information. In discourse, information is an external feature of sentences or gestures. At this "low" level of discourse, information may be called symbolic (or representational). A sentence, utterance, or gesture is a symbol in its external or lowest form. A symbol has three representative functions symbols (associative networks).
 

     Relevance, accuracy, and completeness are normative decisions we make when we compare a symbol to another symbol. Dictionary entries are symbols, and because they are propositionally standardized symbols, defining a word is the activity of specifying the information derivable from a standard symbol. For example, to say that "a cup is a drinking vessel" is to specify the information ("Drinking vessel") of a standard symbol ("cup"). Note that both "cup" and "drinking vessel" is itself made up of symbols ("drinking" and "vessel"). Note that "l'm drinking out of this cup" is also a symbol. In general, any morpheme, word, phrase, or sentence is a symbol. Any tonal or gestural emphasis or deictic is a symbol. Thus, speech, discourse, talk, and communication are activities that require the manipulation of symbols which contain information that is relevant, accurate, and complete to varying degrees, depending on individual instances.

Diagram 2a

The Defining Characteristics of information in Symbols or Low-discourse

We may call this type of discourse activity low discourse or discourse whose function is communicative.

          (A)  It may be a symbol denoting a human affection, striving, impulse, or goal. We may call these types of symbols, affective symbols. These are symbols containing information regarding the affective domain of human affairs: why people do things -- their motives, purposes, goals, inclinations, preferences attractions, drives, resistances, determinations, will, and so on. These are the origins of human action and what constitutes the raison d'e^{^}tre or essence of any human act.

          (B) A second domain for low discourse is the cognitive domain in human affairs: how people do things -- their understandings, truths, principles, plans, guidelines, laws, procedures, methods, and so on. These are the means of human action in that they provide a way or method for carrying out people's goals or purposes. Thus, the cognitive domain contains symbols that provide information on how to obtain our desired end and thus in accordance with our affections These two domains are thus related in that affective symbols are prior to cognitive symbols. Another way to state this is that affective symbols imply cognitive symbols (forward relation) while cognitive symbols presuppose affective symbols (backward relation).

          (C) The third domain of symbols for low discourse is sensorimotor: what people do -- the appearances according to the senses or the performances according to the muscles. These are the ultimate effects of human goals and means. These are the results and final consequences that follow from our will to find ways of achieving our desires and hopes and plans.
 

I. The Communicative Function of Discourse The Low-discourse of Symbol-sentences
	A	B	C
	AFFECTIVE SYMBOLS	COGNITIVE SYMBOLS	SENSORIMOTOR SYMBOLS
Topics:	Desire for status, hope for gain, fear of failure, avoiding the unpleasant, pursuing the comfortable, avoiding trouble, prejudice, favortism,   etc., etc.	Habitual operations & routines, memorizing, modeling & copying, following instructions,   etc., etc.	Dialog, narrative, textbooks, instructions, slogans, news reports,   etc., etc.

     Diagram 4a pictures the three domains of human affairs and their associated symbols. Note that this is a model or theory of human action in that it specifies a sequential causative relation for any human act. Note also that the model defines discourse symbols as triadic. Another way of stating this is to say that dictionary entries are interrelated according to the domain of the information each entry contains. For example, "hammer" is an affective symbol when used to represent a human striving or affection as in emblems or slogans. But when "hammer" is used to represent a means to some result, such as a tool for banging, it is then a cognitive symbol. When used to represent the effect or presence of the hammer - as-a-tool, it is then a sensorimotor symbol. ("Hand me the hammer!" or "I'm hammering this nail real flush ... There!")

     Low discourse is suitable for the communication of information through affective, cognitive, and sensorimotor symbols. 'The content of low discourse may be called topic. Thus, in the sentence, "I need to hammer this nail real flush," the topic is a need, which is an affective symbol. The speaker has a need -- a need for hammering a nail. But in the sentence, "Hand me the hammer!", the topic is a plan, which is a cognitive symbol. The speaker has a plan -- using the hammer as a tool to satisfy the hammering need. In the sentence, "I'm hammering this nail real flush ... There!", the topic is an execution, which is a sensorimotor symbol. The speaker is performing an act with muscles and senses. Thus it can be seen that the information in discourse is related to the dynamics of human affairs. The structural properties of discourse will correspond to the structural properties of human acts.

     The use of low discourse in communication may be evaluated as effective or ineffective by judging the relevance, accuracy, and completeness of the symbol in representing its topics. In everyday, face-to-face talking situations, low discourse is characteristically interactive and cybernetic. That is, talkers jointly produce parts of sentences or parts of the topic, and do so through approximations that home in on it until it is relevant, accurate, and complete as locally desired by the participants. In written communicative discourse such as textbook, or say, instructions that come with appliances, the relevance, and accuracy and completeness of the topical information are non-interactive and necessarily more formal and standard. Though attempts are made to be relevant, accurate, and complete, this goal is only partially achieved in particular instances.

     Low discourse is acquired early in language development and is also suitable in man-machine systems.

     A computer can have some limited conversational exchanges with people if it has a software capability for reasoning routines. These are specified argument sequences that copy argument sequences people use when explaining or justifying an opinion. For example, speech act routines always have their constituent argument logic. Thus, if you say "Hi" to me, it's logical for me to then reply by "Hi" or some equivalent greeting opener. Or, if you say to me, "I've got to be going now," I can reply, "I thought you'd be staying for dinner," because your remark is about leaving, while mine is about not leaving, the two being related by an opposition. Or, if I say to you, "Darwin recanted before he died. He would be shocked to see what evolution theory has become!", I am putting forth an argument that relates my two sentences as nominal and complement relate to each other in an arguments: since Darwin recanted, he'd be shocked.

     It is clear that mid-discourse, which is used for reasoning or reflection, is made up of sentences arranged in series according to an argument logic (or rhetoric). We may call sentences of this sort titles to indicate their characteristic expandibility into fuller statements and paragraphs. This is not the case with sentences that function as symbols, as with low-discourse. The sentences and gestures of low-discourse, whether affective, cognitive, or sensorimotor, always denote the topical information explicitly or directly ("on the surface"): they have a literal meaning or denotation. But sentences that function as titles always have an implied or indirect meaning that can be recovered by inferencing.

     While the characteristics of low-discourse are the characteristics of information-in-symbols, as was seen above, the characteristics of mid-discourse are the characteristics or norms-in-titles. Norms are rankings of information, as in evaluations, ratings, or selections. Every title is a bundle of ranked information. Titles are thus ranked symbols. A symbol may be elevated to a title by giving it a rank on some norm. For example, if I say to you, "I'm the father of two teenagers," you receive the information that I'm a parent and my children are now in their teens. In the cognitive domain you can infer that I know some of the vicissitudes of bringing up children. In the affective domain you can presuppose that I must have evolved a philosophy of life to cope with these vicissitudes or difficulties, and perhaps you might expect me to say something about that. The sentence communicates information but it does not qualify it.

The sentence functions as a symbol for the communication of information that is partially relevant, accurate and complete relative to what information you already have regarding me. This is low-discourse.  But now I can elevate this sentence into the mid-discourse level if I add a ranking or qualification to it, for then it becomes a title that can be expanded. I can say, "I'm the embattled but confident father of two teenagers." Note this sentence is a title because it contains expandable material. In other words, it carries an argument: it has a nominal and its complement. The nominal is the symbol-sentence of low-discourse just considered ("I'm the father of two teenagers"). The complement is the sentence ["(As a father of two teenagers) I'm embattled but (I'm) confident. "] This argument is an expandable bundle. It allows you to say a lot about this topic. You can say that I share with others the peculiar problems and tribulations of being a parent today, but that I feel less distraught or discouraged or conflictual or etc., than some other parents you know, possibly yourself.

     Here is another illustration. You may see the following sentence on an appliance, "Do not immerse in water." Now this sentence is a symbol: it functions in low-discourse for communicating information in the three domains, as pictures in the following:

Low discourse: symbol-sentence "Do not immerse in water."
A	B	C
Affective domain	Cognitive domain	Sensorimotor domain
The manufacturer wants you to be safe and the machine to keep working.  (by presupposition)	If water gets to this machine it will break or cause an injury.   (by implications)	Keep water away from this machine at all times.      (by paraphrase)

Now we can elevate the symbol-sentence to a title-sentence by qualifying the information or adding an argument to it, thus:

II. Pragmatic Functions

II. Mid-discourse: Title-sentence ("This is an electric appliance, and like all electric appliance, should never be immersed in water.")
A	B	C
Affective domain	Cognitive domain	Sensorimotor domain
The manufacturers are trying to influence you by appealing to your sense of responsibility  (by presupposition)	If you immerse it in water, you're obviously doing a very foolish thing.    (by implications)	Keep water away from this machine at all times since it is electric.    (by paraphrase)

     Note that this title-sentence contains reasoning operations in its explicit meaning, (e.g. "should never", "as all electric appliances"). This shows it is a higher level discourse than the symbol-sentence "Do not immerse in water." Note that merely adding other symbol-sentences does not elevate the discourse. For example, "Danger. Do not immerse in water. Clean with sponge" remains a sequence of symbols in low-discourse, each sentence being a separate symbol. To elevate discourse to the title level we must supply an explicit argument or evaluation. Diagram on p.10a lists the category of topics characteristic of mid-discourse.

     Note that the topics of mid-discourse are "higher" than those of low-discourse (diagrams on p. 18 and p. 22) in the sense that they contain rational implications that are culturally normative. In the example just given regarding the electrical appliance- the symbol-sentences were merely informative or directive ("Do not immerse"). Here the topics addressed are directions in handling (by paraphrase), predictions of mishandling (by implication), and manufacturer's intentions (by presupposition ). But with the title-sentences, the topics addressed are general principles of handling electric appliances (by paraphrase) evaluations regarding the person who mishandles them (by implication), and a moral relationship to the manufacturers and their expectations of us (by presupposition).

     We may now consider high-discourse by investigating how this title-sentence can be-elevated to an idea-sentence. For instances:

High-discourse; Idea-sentence ('It is dangerous and foolish to immerse this and other electric appliances in water at any time.")
A	B	C
Affective Domain	Cognitive Domain	Sensorimotor Domain
The manufacturers try to deliver to you a good product; now it's up to you to treat it appropriately.  (by presupposition)	Cultivate good habits. Electricity and water don't mix. Be responsible!     (by implication)	You're doing a dumb thing if you don't keep water away from electric machines like this one.  (by paraphrase)

  Note that idea-sentences of high-discourse are most abstract and rational since they involve universal principles. The topics addressed by the idea-sentence under study are the owner's rationality and wisdom in the general handling of electricity (by paraphrase), the manufacturer's personal obligation towards the owner (by implication).

High-discourse or Idea-sentences
	Affective Ideas	Cognitive Ideas	Sensorimotor Ideas
Topics	Love of being useful, passion for dominance, concern for justice, affection for sharing, altruism, religiousness	Universal truths, wisdom, spirituality, personal truths or life confirmations, ideological reasonings & confirmations	Poetry & biography, ideological discourse, religious revelations, epistemological & eschatological doctrine

Comprehensive Discourse Analysis: Illustration: The Heights and Breadth of Discourse
Height     III. High-discourse  (IDEA SENTENCES)  Synergetic Function	Breadth
	Affective Domain (by (by presupposition) A	Cognitive Domain  (by implications)  B	Sensorimotor Domain  (by paraphrase)  C
	The manufacturers are altruistic and fear for the life of the owner and the appliance  (9)	The manufacturers believe that showing their disapproval for bad habits would make us more careful (8)	It is dangerous and foolish to immerse this and other electric appliances in water at any time      You're doing a dumb thing if you don't keep water away from electric machines like this one.  (7)
II. Mid-discourse (TITLE-SENTENCES)  Pragmatic Function	The manufacturers have a sense of responsibility for their product and how it ought not to be handled    (6)	The manufactures believe that appealing to our intelligence would give us the right attitude towards its safe handling  (5)	This is an electric appliance, and like all electric appliances, should never be immersed in water    Keep water away from this machine at all times since it is electric  (4)
I. Low-discourse   (SYMBOL-SENTENCES)   Communicative Function	The manufactures are trying to inform and warn owners regarding proper handling   (3)	The manufactures believe that providing the relevant information would prevent breakdowns and accidents  (2)	Do not immerse in water    Keep water away   from this appliance  (1)

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