NOTE: The course materials below include a list of main points, questions, required readings, books and articles, and case studies for each of 50 different topics for a multidisciplinary course on violence studies. Also see Part II for appendices with further resources. While this resource was compiled in 1998 and is no longer current, still it provides a fairly thorough foundation of resources up to that year and interested individuals can then build on it further to the present for any particular topic (s) of special interest.

 

COURSE SYLLABUS

 

VIOLENCE STUDIES:

A MULTILEVEL AND MULTIDISCIPLINARY SURVEY

 

COURSE:

INSTITUTION:

TIME:

PLACE:

INSTRUCTOR:

Office:
Office hours:
Office phone:
Email:

ORIENTATION:

"Violent behavior in America is at an all-time high and seems to be increasing. We are a violent society. Each day new and more spectacular violent acts are reported in the media.... We now know that violent acts can be located in any home in America, in any part of an American city, in a ghetto or in a suburban affluent neighborhood. We know that violence is an epidemic. The level of violence in our society is so high that we can no longer ignore it" (Leah J. Dickstein, M.D., and Carol C. Nadelson, M.D., 1989, Family Violence: Emerging Issues of a National Crisis, Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Press, Inc., p. 3).

Violence is a serious, pivotal, complex, and difficult issue in modern society whether in the USA or elsewhere. Here violence is used as a generic category which includes aggression and warfare. From a holistic perspective, violence is simply anything that causes harm to a being, whether human or non-human, someone else or one's self. It involves many diverse kinds of harm including physical, psychological, spiritual, social, and economic. Ultimately, in one way or another, as social beings all humans are involved in some kinds of violence at one time or another as victims and as perpetrators (see Appendix 1).

This course will concentrate primarily on violence and war, but not to the complete exclusion of any consideration of nonviolence and peace. Just as in medicine, where health and disease are best understood in relation to one another, and where the contexts (family, community, and society) as well as the individual are ideally all considered, so in this course on violence studies, like peace studies in general, such a broad and diverse approach is ideal. If ultimately one of our major goals is to reduce all types and levels of violence, it would be ridiculous to ignore nonviolence and peace.

Most people in Western societies follow the negative concept of peace; namely, that peace is reducible to nothing more than the absence of war. The positive concept goes much further, it includes the relative absence of war and other violence (including structural violence) together with the relative presence of nonviolent values and conflict management and resolution, social cooperation and harmony, social and economic justice, human rights, etc. Accordingly, those who follow the negative concept of peace tend to see nothing more than violence and war to the exclusion of any other considerations. Those who follow the positive concept believe that they are getting at the underlying causes of violence, aggression, and war, rather than just reacting to the superficial symptoms. While both concepts have their pros and cons, the positive concept will be taken into consideration throughout this course.

All of these and other phenomena will be surveyed in as many perspectives, levels, contexts, and times as feasible. Perspectives include holistic, biological, evolutionary, cultural, and comparative. The comparative aspect encompasses cross-species, cross-cultural, and cross-national comparisons. Levels refers to individual, group, state, international, and global. Contexts include, but are not limited to, home, community, school, workplace, sports, media, ethnic conflict, civil and international wars. Times encompasses the past---prehistory and history, present, and even future projections.

As many academic disciplines and professions will be included as possible, but the following will be emphasized: anthropology, art, biology, ecology, economics, geography, history, law, literature, medicine, music, philosophy, political science, psychiatry, psychology, and sociology. Thus, ultimately the course will be multi- inter-, and trans-disciplinary. (See Appendix 2 for Conceptual Matrix to be applied to each type of violence studied. This matrix is very important).

The main underlying thesis or argument is that there has been a tendency away from nonviolence and peace toward increased violence and war as a megatrend in human prehistory and history which continues to the present and is likely to persist decades if not centuries into the future. However, this reflects sociocultural (including political) evolution, rather than any form of rigid biological determinism or any inevitable expression of human nature. Furthermore, anthropological and historical records demonstrate the existence of relatively nonviolent and peaceful societies which may provide heuristic models for others. Just as wars and violence begin in the minds of individuals, so can peace and nonviolence, as has been repeatedly demonstrated by numerous and diverse cases.

PIVOTAL QUESTIONS:

1. What is the natural history of violence and war, and secondarily, of nonviolence and peace?

2. What are the types, distributions, conditions, causes, functions, and consequences of violence and war, and secondarily of nonviolence and peace?

3. What transforms nonviolence or peace to violence or war, or vice versa?

4. What are the possible policy implications, interventions, and other actions which could lead individuals and societies to become more nonviolent and peaceful at all levels and in all contexts?

GOALS:

This course will have five primary goals:

1. To develop as factually comprehensive, theoretically rigorous, and multidisciplinary a survey as possible of the multileveled and multifaceted phenomena of violence including war, and secondarily of nonviolence and peace.

2. To explore various and often competing answers to the pivotal questions posed above as well as to numerous related questions including those which arise in class discussions.

3. To emphasize first hand accounts of the experiences and explanations of those directly involved in violence as perpetrators and as victims.

4. To go beyond theoretical and academic concerns to pragmatic ones including policy implications, possible interventions, and other means for reducing violence including conflict management and resolution.

5. To initially familiarize students with the most important published resources available including key textbooks, anthologies, reference works, journals, and organizations (see Appendices 3-4).

6. To accomplish all of this in a manner which is most educationally stimulating, based on developing an active, participant, collaborative, and dialogical learning community that includes student reports and panels as well as guest lectures and panels by faculty and community professionals and others.

7. To help each student to confidentially analyze their own experience with violence and their potential for violence and for nonviolence.

FORMAT:

The course format will include a variety of approaches to developing an active, participatory, collaborative, and dialogical learning community: lectures, panel discussions, debates, interviews (live, telephone, and television), videos, oral reports, book reviews, practicums, and field trips. Debates on issues will be organized like CNN's Cross-Fire and interviews like Public Television's Lehrer Report.

Multidisciplinary coverage of violence studies will be achieved through the indispensable collaboration of numerous and diverse guests who are experts on various aspects of violence studies. They will include professionals (e.g., social workers, police, doctors) from the community as well as faculty from the home university and other nearby academic institutions. In addition, as a learning community, students will contribute reports on various aspects of the subject to complement the expertise of the instructor and guests. Some faculty may serve as informal advisors for students working on reports in their topic or area of expertise. A special pedagogical technique will be to have students (individually, in pairs or groups depending on class size) do library research on a particular type of violence of their choice and then interview in class a faculty member or professional from the community who is a specialist in that type. (In contrast to a guest lecture, this does not require previous preparation by the guest so they are more likely to be willing to participate, and this emphasizes active, participatory, collaborative, and dialogical community learning).

Violence is a very serious problem, and accordingly, students should be prepared to do some very serious reading, thinking, discussing, and debating.

As feasible, fieldtrips will be taken in the vicinity of the university to visit war and peace memorials and other sites relevant to violence studies. Hawaii (e.g., Pearl Harbor with the battleships Arizona and Missouri) and Washington, D.C. (e.g., Vietnam War Memorial and Holocaust Museum), are especially rich in such sites.

GRADING:

The final course grade will be calculated from student performance in a variety of contexts: random quizzes (20%), mid-term and final take-home essay examinations (40%), student panel discussions (20%), book reviews, research reports, field practicums (20%). Class attendance and participation will also be considered.
The grading scale will be A 100-90, B 89-80, C 79-70, D 69-60, and F 59-0. Extra credit may be accumulated by submitting reaction papers for relevant videos and movies, extra book reviews, a research paper, or a report of a field trip or brief internship.

VIDEOS AND MOVIES:

Because of the enormity of the contents of the subject of violence studies, class time will not be sacrificed for showing videos or films. However, lists of relevant videos and movies are available and students are encouraged to select some for viewing following their individual interests and write one-page reaction papers for extra credit. (See Appendices 5-6).

READING:

Students are required to very carefully and critically read the primary textbooks plus selected book chapters and periodical articles as assigned (see Schedule below). Each student is also required to report in class on one case study or book, or to participate in a panel discussion of a book. The book choice will be negotiated among class members and with the instructor. Other reading will be recommended through occasional citations in class and printed bibliographies as class handouts or on library reserve (see Appendices 3 and 4).

Primary Textbooks

Each student is required to selected at least two books of their choice from the following list to read as scheduled:

Englander, Elizabeth Kandel, 1997, Understanding Violence, Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers.

Gilligan, James, 1996, Violence: Reflections on a National Epidemic, New York, NY: Vintage Books.

Glossop, Ronald J., 1994, Confronting War: An Examination of Humanity's Most Pressing Problem, Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Co., Inc., Publishers.

Kriesberg, Louis, 1998, Constructive Conflicts: From Escalation to Resolution, Lanham, MD: Rowan and Littlefield Publishers, Inc.

Nordstrom, Carolyn, and Antonius C.G.M. Robben, eds., 1995, Fieldwork Under Fire: Contemporary Studies of Violence and Survival, Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

Secondary Textbooks (Recommended)

Adler, Leonore Loeb, and Florence L. Denmark, 1995, Violence and the Prevention of Violence, Westport, CT: Praeger.

Gelven, Michael, 1994, War and Existence: A Philosophical Inquiry, University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University Press.

Smith, Dan, 1997, State of War and Peace, New York, NY: Penguin.

Whitmer, Barbara, 1997, The Violence Mythos, Albany, NY: State University of New york Press.

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BRIEF SCHEDULE:

PART I - MULTIDISCIPLINARY FOUNDATIONS OF VIOLENCE STUDIES

1. Orientation: instructor, students, course
2. Violence studies: overview and classification of violence
3. Human nature: violent and/or nonviolent?
4. Multidisciplinary perspectives and theories on violence
5. Topic continued
6. Animal origins of human violence?: ethology and comparative psychology
7. Archaeology and prehistory of violence and war
8. Cultural, historical, political and other factors in violence
9. Formal statements on violence (Seville, Sociology, Valencia)

 

PART II - INDIVIDUAL AND INTERPERSONAL VIOLENCE

10. Suicide and other aspects of self-harm
11. Family violence: child neglect, abuse, and homicide
12. Family violence: spouse neglect, abuse, and homicide
13. Family violence: elderly neglect, abuse, and homicide
14. Sexual violence including rape
15. Homicide (including serial and mass killers)

 

PART III - INTERGROUP AND INSTITUTIONAL VIOLENCE

16. Blood or revenge feuding, ambush, and raiding
17. Violence in the media, entertainment industries, etc.
18. Classroom, school, and campus violence
19. Violence in the workplace, road rage, etc.
20. Street and gang violence
21. Violence and crimes of hate

 

PART IV - STATE VIOLENCE

22. Criminal violence (police including brutality, justice system, prisons)
23. Capital punishment or death penalty
24. Victimhood, survival and recovery
25. Structural (indirect) violence
26. Civil violence (urban riots, etc.)
27. Political and state violence
28. Terrorism

 

PART V - INTERNATIONAL VIOLENCE

29. History of ideas about war and peace
30. Overview of war
31. History of war and peace
32. Geography of war and peace
33. Colonial violence, wars, and "pacification"
34. Ethnic and religious conflict, violence, and wars
35. Genocide and "ethnic cleansing"
Cases: Nazi death camps, Balkans, Burundi-Rwanda
36. Military, militarism, militarization, and militia
37. Civil or "internal" war
38. Low-intensity conflicts and other unconventional wars
39. International and multinational wars
Cases: WWII, Vietnam, Gulf War
40. Nuclear terror, violence, and war
41. Future wars
42. Women, aggression and war
43. Benefits and costs of war
44. War, resources and environment

PART VI - MANAGEMENT AND REDUCTION OF VIOLENCE

45. Military intervention, peacekeeping, and humanitarian assistance
46. Arms control, disarmament, and demilitarization
47. Philosophical, religious, ethical, and moral aspects of war
48. Nonviolence and peace
49. Crisis management and conflict resolution
50. Human rights

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SCHEDULE::

The course schedule is based on a semester of 17 weeks with three 50 minute meetings each week for a total of about 50 class sessions. However, an instructor and/or students can readily choose the topics most relevant for their particular course and build further on the resources listed with the computer disc enclosed. Each topic starts on a separate page and includes a listing of main points, key questions (for research, lectures, study guides, and/or class discussions), required readings (textbook and others), case studies, and further resources (articles and books). Each bibliographic citation is given only once for purposes of economy even though it may fit under more than one topic. Also there is overlap between some topics, but they have been separated to concentrate attention on each.

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PART I - MULTIDISCIPLINARY FOUNDATIONS OF VIOLENCE STUDIES

1. Introduction

2. Orientation: Instructor, Students, Course

MAIN POINTS

1. At one time or another in one way or another as social beings all humans are victims and perpetrators of some kinds of violence. Students and the instructor will critically discuss this proposition as an opening vehicle for sharing their experiences and concerns with violence in their lives, society, and world.
2. They will also discuss the content, organization, objectives, and other aspects of the course syllabus.

QUESTIONS

1. Why do you agree or disagree with this proposition?
2. Have you ever witnessed someone getting badly hurt or even killed, or do you know of anyone who has been in jail for a violent offense?
3. Why devote an entire course to violence studies?
4. Why survey such a breadth and diversity of types of violence rather than concentrating on only one type or a few types?
5. Why are you interested in this course?
6. Are you interested in particular types of violence or aspects of violence studies?

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3. Violence Studies: Overview and Classification of Violence

MAIN POINTS

1. In this course violence is taken to include aggression and war as well as violence which is self-directed, interpersonal, or intergroup.
2. Thus violence covers an extremely broad, diverse, variable, and complex range of phenomena from suicide to global or nuclear war and everything in between.
3. The pros and cons of numerous definitions and classifications of violence will be critically analyzed.
4. It must also be recognized that descriptive, analytical, practical, and normative approaches to violence may differ considerably among groups, cultures, historical periods, and ideologies.

QUESTIONS

1. Why are definitions and classifications necessary?
2. How has violence been defined and classified by individuals of different persuasions and why?
3. How is it related to conflicts, disputes, aggression, and war?
4. Do some definitions and classifications carry a hidden agenda--- ideological, political, social, moral, and/or religious?
5. Why are some more valid and useful than others?
6. Is it possible to be completely neutral and objective in describing and explaining violence?
7. What are the costs and benefits of violence?

REQUIRED READING

TEXTS: Englander Chs. 1, 6; Gilligan Chs. 1-5, 7; Nordstrom and Robben, pp. 1-23.

ARTICLES

Hinde, Robert A., 1997, "The Diversity of Violence," in Violence: From Biology to Society, J.S. Grisolia, et al., eds., New York, NY: Elsevier, pp. 9-12.

BOOKS

Archer, John, and Kevin Browne, eds., 1989, Human Aggression: Naturalistic Approaches, New York, NY: Routledge.

Baron, Robert A., and Deborah Richardson, 1994, Human Aggression, New York, NY: Plenum.

Berkowitz, L., 1993, Aggression: Its Causes, Consequences, and Control, New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.

Burton, John, 1997, Violence Explained, Manchester, England: University of Manchester Press.

Fletcher, Jonathan, 1997, Violence and Civilization: An Introduction to the Work of Norbert Elias, Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishers Inc.

Flannery, Raymond B., 1997, Violence in America: Coping with Drugs, Distressed Families, Inadequate Schooling, and Acts of Hate, New York, NY: Continuum.

Geen, Russell G., 1990, Human Aggression, Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.

Jabri, Vivienne, 1996, Discourses on Violence: Conflict Analysis Reconsidered, Manchester, England: University of Manchester Press.

Reiss, Albert J., Jr., and Jeffrey A. Roth, eds., 1993, Understanding and Preventing Violence, Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, Vols. 1-4.

Watson, Lyall, 1995, Dark Nature: A Natural History of Evil, New York, NY: HarperCollins Publishers.

Weiner, Neil Alan, Margaret A. Zahn, and Rita J. Sagi, eds., 1990, Violence: Patterns, Causes, and Public Policy, New York, NY: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.

Weiner, Philip P., and John Fisher, eds., 1974, Violence and Aggression: In the History of Ideas, New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.

Whitmer, Barbara, 1997, The Violence Mythos, Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.

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4. Human Nature: Violent and/or Nonviolent?

MAIN POINTS

1. Although some may view human nature as an anachronistic concept, it is certainly of historical interest and, furthermore, it persists today among many professionals and lay persons where it strongly influences and may retard their views of violence and war among other things.
2. Moreover, some scholars argue that human nature remains a valid and useful pivotal concept with profound implications and ramifications for Western society and beyond.
3. One's concept of human nature may also strongly influence whether an individual is pessimistic or optimistic about the possibilities of a more nonviolent and peaceful society and world as well as whether one is actively or passively involved in trying to improve situations.

QUESTIONS

1. What is human nature?
2. What is the relationship between nature and nurture?
3. Is human nature a valid and/or useful concept?
4. Is there a single human nature or are there many human natures?
5. Is human nature discovered (essentialism) and/or constructed (postmodernism)?
6. Do non-Western cultures have anything like a concept of human nature?
7. How have ideas about human nature changed through time?
8. How do different disciplines approach human nature?
9. Is human nature prone to violence, aggression, and warfare?
10. Would human nature allow the development of a more nonviolent and peaceful lifestyle, society, and world?
11. Are there better elemental and pivotal concepts than human nature for exploring violence, aggression, and war?

REQUIRED READING

Smith, Steve, 1983, "War and Human Nature," in Politics and Human Nature, Ian Forbes and Steve Smith, eds., New York, NY: St. Martin's Press, pp. 164-179.

CASES

Turnbull, Colin M., 1972, The Mountain People, New York, NY: Simon and Schuster.

Dentan, Robert Knox, 1968, The Semai: A Nonviolent People of Malaya, New York, NY: New York, NY: Harcourt Brace College Publishers.

ARTICLES

Davies, James Chowning. 1995, "Human Nature and Aggression: And Where do We Go from Here?," Research in Biopolitics 3:35-83.

McClelland, J.S., 1996, "The Theory of the Social Contract [Hobbes, Locke, Rousseau]," A History of Western Political Thought, New York, NY: Routledge, pp. 171-274.

Moran, Francis III, 1993, "Between Primates and Primitives: Natural Man as the Missing Link in Rousseau's Second Discourse," Journal of the History of Ideas 54(1):37-58.

Sponsel, Leslie E., 1996, "The Natural History of Peace: A Positive View of Human Nature and Its Potential," in A Natural History of Peace, Thomas Gregor, ed., Nashville, TN: Vanderbilt University Press, pp. 95-125.

BOOKS

Abel, Don C., 1992, Theories of Human Nature, New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.

Barnett, S.A., 1988, Biology and Freedom, New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.

Curti, Merle, 1980, Human Nature in American Thought: A History, Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press.

Feibleman, James Kern, 1987, The Destroyers: The Underside of Human Nature, New York, NY: Peter Lang.

Fleming, Thomas, 1988, The Politics of Human Nature, New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books.

Kohn, Alfie, 1990, The Brighter Side of Human Nature, New York, NY: Basic Books, Inc., Publishers.

Montagu, Ashley, and Floyd Matson, 1983, The Dehumanization of Man, New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.

Stevenson, Leslie, and David L. Haberman, 1998, Ten Theories of Human Nature, New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Wilson, Edward O., 1978, On Human Nature, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

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5. Multidisciplinary Perspectives and Theories on Violence

MAIN POINTS

1. Violence is such a broad, diverse, variable, complex, technical, and difficult domain that no single science, discipline, theory, or method is adequate to encompass it all.
2. Progress in describing, explaining, and managing violence must rest on a holistic and comparative approach which is simultaneously inter-, multi-, and trans-disciplinary.
3. Accordingly different studies are complementary, the weaknesses of one being complemented by the strengths of another, and vice versa.

QUESTIONS

1. What is the history of ideas about violence in Western civilization?
2. What are the differences and similarities between the different academic disciplines and professional fields in their study of violence?
3. What are the main theories to explain violence?
4. Who are their proponents?
5. What are the contributions and limitations of each?
6. What more is needed toward constructing a synthetic theory of violence?
7. What are the main research methods for the study of violence? 8. What major questions remain unanswered?

REQUIRED READING

TEXTS: Englander Chs. 2-4, Gilligan Ch. 9

Kelly, Harold H., and Greg Schmidt, 1989, "The "Aggressive Male" Syndrome: Its Possible Relevance for International Conflict," in Perspectives on Deterrence, Paul C. Stern, et al., eds., New York, NY: Oxford University Press, pp. 251-286.

ARTICLES

Archer, John, 1988, "The History and Aims of Aggression Research," in his The Behavioural Biology of Aggression, New York, NY: Cambridge University Press, pp. 1-17.

Baron, Robert A., and Deborah R. Richardson, 1994, "Methods for the Systematic Study of Aggression," in Human Aggression, New York, NY: Plenum Press, pp. 39-85

Benson D. Frank, and Bruce L. Miller, 1997, "Frontal Lobe Mechanisms of Aggression," in From Biology to Society, J.S. Grisolia, et al., eds., New York, NY: Elsevier, pp. 35-42.

Berkowitz, Leonard, 1990, "Biological Roots: Are Humans Inherently Violent?," in Psychological Dimensions of War, Betty Glad, ed., Newbury Park, CA: Sage, pp. 24-40.

Blanchard, D. Caroline, and Robert J. Blanchard, 1989, "Experimental Animal Models of Aggression: What Do They Say About Human Behaviour?," in Human Aggression: Naturalistic Approaches, John Archer and Kevin Browne, eds., New York, NY: Routledge, pp. 94-121.

Blank, Robert H., 1995, "The Changing Nature of Human Nature," Research in Biopolitics 3:221-241 (genetic intervention)

DiCanio, Margaret, 1993, "Limitations on Behavioral Science Studying Violence," in The Encyclopedia of Violence: Origins, Attitudes Consequences, Margaret DiCanio, eds., New York, NY: Facts on File, pp. 329-335.

Fletcher, John C., 1997, "Ethical Perspectives on Violence," in Violence: From Biology to Society, J.S. Grisolia, et al., eds., New York, NY: Elsevier, pp. 105-113.

Gartner, Rosemary, 1997, "Cross-Cultural Aspects of Violence," in Violence: From Biology to Society, J.S. Grisolia, et al., eds., New York, NY: Elsevier, pp. 171-180.

Goldstein, Jeffrey H., 1989, "Beliefs about Human Aggression," in Aggression and War: Their Biological and Social Bases, Jo Groebel and Robert A. Hinde, eds., New York, NY: Cambridge University Press, pp. 10-19.

Gottesman, Irving I., 1997, "Genetics and Human Aggression- Necessarily Modest Proposals," in Violence: From Biology to Society, J.S. Grisolia, et al., eds., New York, NY: Elsevier, pp. 79-86.

Grisolia, James Santiago, 1997, "Temporal Lobe Mechanisms and Violence," in Violence: From Biology to Society, J.S. Grisolia, et al., eds., New York, NY: Elsevier, pp. 43-52.

Herbert, J., 1989, "The Physiology of Aggression," 1989, in Aggression and War: Their Biological and Social Bases, Jo Groebel and Robert A. Hinde, eds., New York, NY: Cambridge University Press, pp. 58-71.

Hinde, Robert A., 1990, "Aggression: Integrating Ethology and the Social Sciences," in Violence and Suicidality: Perspectives in Clinical and Psychobiological Research, Herman M. van Praag, Robert Plutchik, and Alan Apter, eds., New York, NY: Brunner-Mazel, Publishers, pp. 66-78.

Hinde, Robert, 1997, "Is War a Consequence of Human Aggression?," in Aggression: Biological, Developmental, and Social Perspectives, Seymour Feshbach and Jolanta Zagrodzka, New York, NY: Plenum Press, pp. 177-183.

Hoffman, John P., Timothy O. Ireland, and Cathy Spatz Widom, 1994, "Traditional Socialization Theories of Violence: A Critical Examination," in Male Violence, John Archer, ed., New York, NY: Routledge, pp. 289-309.

Johnston, R.J., J. O'Loughlin, and P.J. Taylor, 1987, "The Geography of Violence and Premature Death: A World-Systems Approach," in The Quest for Peace, Raimo Vayrynen, et al., eds., Newbury Park, CA: Sage, pp. 241-259.

Kando, Tom, 1996, "Postmodernism: Old Wine in New Bottles," International Journal on World Peace XIII(3):3-33.

Kevles, Daniel J., 1997, "Violence and the Genetics of Human Behavior: Historical Reflections," in Violence: From Biology to Society, J.S. Grisolia, ed., New York, NY: Elsevier, pp. 95-103.

Kiefer, Christie W., 1997, "Militarism and Peace in the Information Age," in Violence: From Biology to Society, J.S. Grisolia, et al., eds., New York, NY: Elsevier, pp. 181-188.

Manning, Aubrey, 1989, "The Genetic Bases of Aggression," in Aggression and War: Their Biological and Social Bases, New York, NY: Cambridge University Press, pp. 48-57.

Murray, Robert F., Jr., 1997, "Genetics and Violence," in Violence: From Biology to Society, J.S. Grisolia, et al., eds., New York, NY: Elsevier, pp. 87-94.

Nordstrom, Carolyn, and JoAnn Martin, 1992, "The Culture of Conflict: Field Reality and Theory," in The Paths to Domination, Resistance and Terror, Carolyn Nordstrom and JoAnn Martin, eds., Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, pp. 3-17.

Oberschall, Anthony, 1978, "Theories of Social Conflict," American Review of Sociology 4:291-315.

Ovsiew, Fred, and Stuart Yudofsky, 1993, "Aggression: A Neuropsychiatric Perspective," in Rage, Power, and Aggression, Robert A. Glick and Steve P. Roose, eds., New Haven, CT: Yales University Press, pp. 213-234.

Pincus, Jonathan H., 1997, "Violence: The Scientific-Medical Perspective," in Violence: From Biology to Society, J.S. Grisolia, et al., eds., New York, NY: Elsevier, pp. 53-58.

Riches, David, 1986, "The Phenomenon of Violence," in The Anthropology of Violence, David Riches, ed., pp. 1-27

Ross, Marc Howard, 1986, "A Cross-Cultural Theory of Political Conflict and Violence," Political Psychology 7:427-469.

Rubenstein, Robert A., 1994, "Collective Violence and Common Security," in Companion Encyclopedia of Anthropology, Tim Ingold, ed., New York, NY: Routledge, pp. 983-1009.

Shapiro, Michael J., 1992, "The Obscure Object of Violence: Logistic, Desire, War," Alternatives 17(4):453-477.

Sheard, Michael H., 1987, "Psychopharmacology of Aggression in Humans," in Ethnopharmacology of Agonistic Behaviour in Animals and Humans, B. Olivier, J. Mos, and P.F. Brain, eds., Boston, MA: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, pp.257-266.

Sluka, Jeffrey A., 1990, "Participant Observation in Violent Social Contexts," Human Organization 49(2):114-126.

Sluka, Jeffrey A., 1992, "The Anthropology of Conflict," in The Paths to Domination, Resistance and Terror, Carolyn Nordstrom and JoAnn Martin, eds., Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, pp. 18-36.

Tsytsarev, Sergei, and Charles V. Callahan, 1995, "Motivational Approach to Violent Behavior: A Cross-Cultural Perspective," in Violence and the Prevention of Violence, Leonore Loieb Adler and Florence L. Denmark, eds., Westport, CT: Praeger, pp. 3-10.

Turner, Angela K., 1994, "Genetic and Hormonal Influences on Male Violence," in Male Violence, John Archer, ed., New York, NY: Routledge, pp. 253-288.

Yudofsky, Stuart C., et al., 1986, "The Overt Aggression Scale for the Objective Rating of Verbal and Physical Aggression," American Journal of Psychiatry 143(1):35-39.

Zur, Ofer, 1987, "The Psychohistory of Warfare: The Co-Evolution of Culture, Psyche, and Enemy," Journal of Peace Research 24(2):125-134.

BOOKS

Campbell, Anne, 1993, Men, Women, and Aggression From Rage in Marriage to Violence in the Streets- How Gender Affects the Way We Act, New York, NY: Basic Books.

Cotta, Sergio, 1985, Why Violence? A Philosophical Interpretation, Gainesville, FL: University of Florida Press.

Burton, John W., 1997, Violence Explained, New York, NY: Manchester University Press.

Feshbach, Seymour, and Jolanta Zagrodzka, eds., 1997, Aggression: Biological, Developmental, and Social Perspectives, New York, NY: Plenum Press.

Kutash, Irwin L., Samuel B. Kutash, and Louis B. Schlersinger, eds., 1978, Violence: Perspectives on Murder and Aggression, San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Publishers, Part I "Theoretical Viewpoints," pp. 7-132.

Mackal, P. Karl, 1979, Psychological Theories of Aggression: A Social Psychologist's Reflections about Aggression, New York, NY: North-Holland Publishing Co.

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6. Animal Origins of Human Violence?: Ethology and Comparative Psychology

MAIN POINTS

1. Publications by students of animal behavior such as Konrad Lorenz have stimulated interest in human aggression in many social and behavioral sciences.
2. It is important to understand both the continuities and the discontinuities between humans and animnals. Humans are animals and a product of organic evolution; however, humans are also essentially unique in their mind, culture, history, and language. Therefore, research on nonhuman animals can provide many valuable insights into human phenomena, but is also limited.
3. Those animals closest to humans phylogenetically are likely to provide the most valuable insights, namely, the common and pygmy species of chimpanzees. The former exhibits more violence, and some observers would say at least the rudiments of warfare, whereas the latter tends to be nonviolent and peaceful.
4. Aggression between members within a species usually relates to competition for limited resources such as food, territory, and mates.
5. Some animal species have also developed mechanisms of conflict resolution, especially primates (monkeys and apes).

QUESTIONS

1. Is animal behavior relevant to human behavior?
2. What animal species are closest to humans?
3. Are they violent and/or nonviolent?
4. Are there any relatively nonviolent and peaceful species or societies of nonhuman animals?
5. Does war or its rudiments exist anywhere in the animal kingdom? 6. What about genocide?
7. What insights into human violence and aggression do comparative studies from ethology and psychology provide?
8. What are their limitations?
9. What explanations of human violence are offered by sociobiologists?
10. Are mechanisms of conflict resolution found among nonhuman
animal species?

REQUIRED READING

de Waal, Frans, 1995, "Bonobo Sex and Society," Scientific American 273(3):82-88.

CASE

Wrangham, Richard, and Dale Peterson, 1996, Demonic Males: Apes and the Origins of Human Violence. NY: Houghton Mifflin.

ARTICLES

Falger, Vincent S.E., 1989, "The Arnhem Zoo Chimpanzee Project: A Political Scientist's Evaluation," Social Science Information 29(1):33-54.

Kano, Takayoshi, 1990, "The Bonobo's Peaceable Kingdom," Natural History 11:62-71.

Kim, Samuel S., 1976, "The Lorenzian Theory of Aggression and Peace Research: A Critique," Journal of Peace Research 13:253-276.

Silverberg, James, and J. Patrick Gray, 1992, "Violence and Peacefulness as Behavioral Potentialities of Primates," in their Aggression and Peacefulness in Humans and Other Primates, New York, NY: Oxford University Press, pp. 1-36.

Smuts, Barbara, 1989, "Primate Detente," Natural History 4:91-95.

Smuts, Barbara, 1996, "Male Aggression Against Women: An Evolutionary Perspective," in Sex, Power, Conflict: Evolutionary and Feminist Perspectives, David M. Buss and Neil M. Malamuth, eds., New York, NY: Oxford University Press, pp. 231-268.

Tinbergen, Niko, 1968, "On War and Peace in Animals and Man," Science 160:1411-1418.

de Waal, Frans, 1996, "The Biological Basis of Peaceful Coexistence: A Review of Reconciliation Research on Monkeys and Apes," in A Natural History of Peace, Thomas Gregor, ed., Nashville, TN: Vanderbilt University Press, pp. 37-70.

Wilson, Margo, and Martin Daly, 1985, "Competitiveness, Risk Taking, and Violence: The Young Male Syndrome," Ethology and Sociobiology 6:59-73.

BOOKS

Archer, John, 1988, The Behavioural Biology of Aggression, New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.

Archer, John, 1994, Male Violence, New York, NY: Routledge.

Buss, David M., and Neil M. Malamuth, eds., 1996, Sex, Power, Conflict: Evolutionary and Feminist Perspectives, New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Dennen, Johan M.G. van der, and Vincent S.S. Falger, 1990, Sociobiology and Conflict: Evolutionary Perspectives on Competition, Cooperation, Violence and Warfare, New York, NY: Chapman and Hall.

Huntington, Felicity A., and Angela K. Turner, 1987, Animal Conflict, New York, NY: Chapman and Hall.

Karli, Pierre, 1991, Animal and Human Aggression, New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Klama, John, 1988, Aggression: Conflict in Animals and Humans Reconsidered, Essex, England: Longman Group.

Lorenz, Konrad, 1966, On Aggression, New York, NY: Harcourt, Brace and World, Inc.

Mason, William A., and Sally P. Mendoza, eds., 1993, Primate Social Conflict, Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.

Montagu, Ashley, 1976, The Nature of Human Aggression, New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Otten, Charlotte, ed., 1973, Aggression and Evolution. Lexington, MA: Xerox Publishing Co.

Power, Margaret, 1991, The Egalitarians, Human and Chimpanzee: An Anthropological View of Social Organization, New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.

Scott, John Paul, 1975, Aggression, Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.

Shaw, R. Paul, and Yuwa Wong, 1989, Genetic Seeds of Warfare: Evolution, Nationalism, and Patriotism, Boston, MA: Unwin Hyman, Inc.

Silverberg, James, and J. Patrick Gray, eds., 1992, Aggressiveness and Peacefulness in Humans and Other Primates, New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Volavka, Jan, 1992, The Neurobiology of Violence, Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Press.

de Waal, Frans, 1989, Peacemaking Among Primates, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

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7. Archaeology, Prehistory, and Evolution of Violence and War

MAIN POINTS

1. The archaeological and palaeontological (fossil skeletal) evidence for violence and war in human prehistory is relatively rare in the Palaeolithic period, but increasingly present in the Mesolithic and especially the Neolithic (agricultural revolution) and beyond in early civilizations (states).
2. However, there can be alternative interpretations of the same evidence by different prehistorians related to their ideological as well as theoretical and methodological postures.
3. Thus, some consider warfare to be ubiquitous or nearly so in prehistory, whereas others consider warfare to be a relatively late development in cultural evolution. This dispute may only be resolved by much more systematic research and evidence on violence and war by prehistorians.
4. In either case, war and the state seem to evolve together in a mutually reinforcing manner, although extensive periods of peace are also known during the prehistory and history of states.
5. Thus, archaeology and prehistory remain contentious on the issue of whether or not human nature is inevitably violent and warlike.

QUESTIONS

1. What kinds of artifactual (material culture) and skeletal evidence have been recovered to document the prehistory and cultural evolution of human violence and war?
2. What insights does the evidence provide?
3. What are the problems and limitations of the evidence, analyses, and interpretations?
4. Does evidence from prehistory confirm that humans are naturally violent and warlike?
5. Does it confirm that war is universal or ubiquitous?

REQUIRED READING

Carman, John, 1997, "Approaches to Violence," in Material Harm: Archaeological Studies of War and Violence, John Carmen, ed., Glasgow, Scotland: Cruithne Press, pp. 1-23.

Carman, John, 1997, "Giving Archaeology a Moral Voice," in Material Harm: Archaeological Studies of War and Violence, John Carmen, ed., Glasgow, Scotland: Cruithne Press, pp. 220-239.

Carneiro, Robert L., 1970, "A Theory of the Origin of the State," Science 469:733-738.

CASE

Keeley, Lawrence H., 1996, War Before Civilization: The Myth of the Peaceful Savage, New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

ARTICLES

Carneiro, Robert L., 1994, "War and Peace: Alternating Realities in Human History," in Studying War: Anthropological Perspectives, S.P. Reyna and R.E. Downs, eds., Langhorne, PA: Gordon and Breach, pp. 3-27.

Carneiro, Robert L., 1990, "Chiefdom-Level Warfare as Exemplified in Fiji and the Cauca Valley," in The Anthropology of War, Jonathan Haas, ed., pp. 190-211.

Demarest, Arthur A., 1996, "War, Peace, and the Collapse of a Native American Civilization: Lessons for Contemporary Systems of Conflict," in A Natural History of Peace, Thomas Gregor, ed., Nashville, TN: Vanderbilt University Press, pp. 215-248.

Eckhardt, William, 1992, "Primitive Warfare," in his Civilizations, Empires and Wars: A Quantitative History of War, Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Co., Inc., Publishers, pp. 7-26

Otterbein, Keith F., 1997, "The Origins of War," Critical Review 11(2):251-277.

Vencl, S., 1984, "War and Warfare in Archaeology," Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 3:116-132.

BOOKS

Carman, John, 1997, Material Harm: Archaeological Studies of War and Violence. Glasgow, Scotland: Cruithne.

Hassig, Ross, 1992, War and Society in Ancient Mesoamerica, Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

Oakeshott, R. Ewart, 1996, The Archaeology of Weapons, New York, NY: Dover.

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8. Cultural, Historical, Political, and Other Factors in Violence

MAIN POINTS

1. The kinds, frequency, duration, and magnitude of violence vary among individuals within the same group or society as well as among different groups and societies and at different periods in their histories, thus a detailed consideration of the specifics of the context of each particular case is indispensable.
2. Some extremely violent and warlike societies have become relatively nonviolent and peaceful very quickly, and the converse.
3. Different approaches and explanations of violence and war focusing on different factors may be complementary rather than competitive or antithetical.

QUESTIONS

1. Is Western civilization in general, or American culture in particular, more violent and warlike than other cultures?
2. Do Americans value positively violence and war?
3. Are there any systemic biases in scientific studies of violence?
4. Why are single factor explanations of violence inadequate?
5. Do so-called "primitive" and "civilized" cultures differ in their violence and war?
6. Why and how do some violent/warlike cultures become nonviolent/peaceful, and vice versa?
7. What are the pros and cons of materialist versus mentalist explanations of violence?
8. How do postmodernists view violence?

REQUIRED READING: Gilligan Ch. 10

Robarchek, Clayton A., and Carole J. Robarchek, 1992, "Cultures of War and Peace: A Comparative Study of Waorani and Semai," in Aggression and Peacefulness in Humans and Other Primates, James Silverberg and J. Patrick Gray, eds., New York, NY: Oxford University Press, pp. 189-213.

CASES

Heider, Karl, 1997, Grand Valley Dani: Peaceful Warriors, New York, NY: Harcourt brace College Publishers.

Robarchek, Clayton, and Carole Robarchek, 1998, Waorani: The Contexts of Violence and War, New York, NY: Harcourt Brace College Publishers.

ARTICLES

Ember, Carol R., and Melvin Ember, 1994, "Cross-Cultural Studies of War and Peace: Recent Achievements and Future Possibilities," in Studying War: Anthropological Perspectives, S.P. Reyna and R.E.Downs, eds., Langhorne, PA: Gordon and Breach, pp. 185-208.

Fabbro, David, 1978, "Peaceful Societies: An Introduction," Journal of Peace Research 12:67-84.

Otterbein, Keith F., 1994, "Convergence in the Anthropological Study of Warfare," in his Feuding and Warfare, Langhorne, PA: Gordon and Breach, pp. 133-146.

Otterbein, Keith F., 1997, "The Origins of War," Critical Review 11(2):251-277.

Podolefsky, Aron, 1984, "Contemporary Warfare in the New Guinea Highlands," Ethnology 23:73-87.

Robarchek, Clayton A., and Carole J. Robarchek, 1996, "The Aucas, the Cannibals, and the Missionaries: From Warfare to Peacefulness Among the Waorani," in A Natural History of Peace, Thomas Gregor, ed., Nashville,TN: Vanderbilt University Press, pp. 189-212.

Staub, Ervin, 1992, "The Cultural and Psychological Origins of War," in The Roots of Evil: The Origins of Genocide and Other Group Violence, Ervin Staub, New York, NY: Cambridge University Press, pp. 249-260.

BOOKS

Beer, Francis A., 1974, How Much War in History: Definitions, Estimates, Extrapolations and Trends, Beverley Hills, CA: Sage.

Otterbein, Keith F., 1989, The Evolution of War, New Haven, CT: Human Relations Area Files Press.

Turney-High, Harry H., 1949, Primitive War: Its Practices and Concepts, Jefferson, NC: McFarland& Co., Inc., Publishers.

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9. Formal Statements on Violence (Seville Statement on Violence, Sociological Statement on War and Violence, Valencia Statement on Violence, etc.)

MAIN POINTS

1. The Seville Statement on Violence was developed by a multidisciplinary group of 20 international experts at a conference sponsored by UNESCO in 1986 to respond to the supposed misuse of scientific theories and data to justify violence and to popular ideas that violence is a natural and therefore inevitable expression of human nature rooted in evolutionary history and biology.
2. It was felt that such beliefs lead to pessimism and apathy about taking any action to try to create more nonviolent and peaceful lifestyles, societies, and world.
3. The Statement strongly asserted that it is "scientifically incorrect" that: the human species has inherited any tendencies toward violence from its animal ancestors; violence is genetically programmed; there has been a selection for aggressive behavior more than for any other kinds of behavior in human evolution; humans have a violent brain; and war is caused by instinct or any single motivation.
4. The statement has been disseminated extensively in 30 languages and several hundred publications including scientific journals and endorsed by numerous scientific and professional organizations.
5. However, many of the issues and questions addressed by the Statement remain under investigation and debate, and many criticisms have been made about points in the Statement.

QUESTIONS

1. What is the Seville Statement on Violence?
2. Why was it developed?
3. What organizations have endorsed it?
4. What are its merits?
5. What criticisms have been made about it?
6. Why has it been so controversial?
7. What questions remain?
8. What are the alternatives?
9. How do other formal organizational statements on violence and war compare?

REQUIRED READING

Marullo, Sam, and Jen Hlavacek, 1992, "Sociologists on War as a Social Problem," Peace Review 4(3):19-23.

ARTICLES

Adams, David, et al., 1992, "The Seville Statement on Violence," in Peace Review 4(3):???

Adams David, 1997, "War is Not in Our Biology: A Decade of the Seville Statement on Violence," in Violence: From Biology to Society, J.S. Grisolia, et al., eds., New York, NY: Elsevier, pp. 251-259.

Beroldi, G., 1994, "Critique of Seville Statement on Violence," American Psychologist 49:847-848.

Fox, Robin, 1994, "Violence, Ideology and Inquisition: Encounter with Seville," in his The Challenge of Anthropology: Old Encounters and New Excursions, New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers, pp. 95-111.

Kriesburg, Louis, 1992, "Sociological Statement on War and Violence," Peace Review 4(3):

Waal, Frans de, 1992, "Aggression as a Well-Integrated Part of Primate Social Relationships: A Critique of the Seville Statement on Violence," in Aggression and Peacefulness in Humans and Other Primates, James Silverberg and J. Patrick Gray, eds., New York, NY: Oxford University Press, pp. 37-56.

BOOKS

Grisolia, James S., et al., eds., 1997, Violence: From Biology to Society, New York, NY: Elsevier.

Groebel, Jo, and Robert A. Hinde, 1989, Aggression and War: Their Biological and Social Bases, New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.

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PART II. - INDIVIDUAL AND INTERPERSONAL VIOLENCE

10. Suicide and Other Aspects of Self-Harm

MAIN POINTS

1. Although initially surprising, in fact individuals can harm or violate themselves in numerous ways from substance abuse to self-mutilation short of suicide.
2. The rates and other characteristics of suicide vary across age, sex, and social classes as well as across cultures, nations, and through history.
3. Although under reported, estimates are that about 30,000 Americans commit suicide annually, compared to about 20,000 homicides: suicide rates are higher among white males and among individuals in prisons and mental hospitals.
4. The rate of youth suicide (age 15-24 years) has more than tippled in recent decades to become the third leading cause of death and to be recognized as a public health problem.
5. There are early warning signs of individuals at risk for suicide and preventive as well as intervention measures have proven successful in many cases, although inadequate data make assessment difficult.
6. Suicide as an individual human right, especially for the terminally ill of sound mind, is a controversial issue of morality and ethics but it is gaining increasing recognition.

QUESTIONS

1. Are some individuals or personalities naturally violent?
2. Why would someone harm themselves in any way, consciously or unconsciously?
3. What are the types and patterns of self-destructive behavior?
4. What is the role of substance abuse (alcohol, drugs, etc.) and psychological disorders such as chronic depression?
5. What are the characteristics and patterns of suicide?
6. How does suicide vary across age and social classes as well as across cultures and nations and through history?
7. What causes teen suicide?
8. Can suicide be prevented?
9. Can suicide be nonviolent?
10. Is suicide an individual right?
11. Should assisted suicide or euthanasia be legal under any circumstances?

REQUIRED READING

TEXT: Englander Ch. 7

Farberow, Norman L., 1980, "Indirect Self-Destructive Behavior: Classification and Characteristics," in The Many Faces of Suicide: Indirect Self-Destructive Behavior, Norman L. Farberow, ed., New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Book Company, pp. 15-27.

ARTICLES

Fairbairn, Gavin J., 1995, "Where Do Our Views of Suicide Come From?," in Contemplating Suicide: The Language and ethics of Self-Harm, New York, NY: Routledge, pp. 27-37.

Fino, Susan P., John M. Strate, and Marvin Zalman, 1997, "Paging Dr. Death: The Political Theater of Assisted Suicide in Michigan," Politics and the Life Sciences 16(1):87-103.

Lester, David, 1990, "The Prevention of Suicide: Public Health Approaches," in his Current Concepts of Suicide, Philadelphia, PA: The Charles Press Publishers, pp. 182-193.

Lester, David, 1992, "Sociological Theories of Suicide," in his Why People Kill Themselves: A 1990s Summary of Research Findings on Suicidal Behavior, Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas, ed., pp. 74-84.

Lester, David, 1992, "Psychological Theories of Suicide," in his Why People Kill Themselves: A 1990s Summary of Research Findings on Suicidal Behavior, Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas, pp. 418-434.

Pamer, Stuart, 1965, "Murder and Suicide in Forty Non-Literate Societies," Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology, and Police Science 56:320-324.

Rosenberg, M.L., et al., 1987, "The Emergence of Youth Suicide: An Epidemiologic Analysis and Public Health Perspective," Annual Review of Public Health 8:417-440.

Taylor, Stuart P., 1997, "Alcohol, Drugs, and Aggression," in Violence: From Biology to Society, J.S. Grisolia, et al., eds.,New York, NY: Elsevier, pp. 141-147.

BOOKS

Batlin, Margaret Pabst, 1995, Ethical Issues in Suicide, Englewood CLiffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Beauchamp, Tom L., ed., 1996, Intending Death: The Ethics of Assisted Suicide and Euthanasia, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Clark, Ronald V., 1989, and David Lester, 1989, Suicide: Closing the Exits, New York, NY: Springer-Verlag.

Cosculluela, Victor, 1995, The Ethics of Suicide, New York, NY: Garland Publishing, Inc.

Donnelly, John, 1998, Suicide: Right or Wrong?, Amherst, NY: Prometheous Books.

Durkheim, Emile, 1979 (1897), Suicide: A Study in Sociology, New York, NY: Free Press.

Fairbairn, Gavin J., 1995, Contemplating Suicide: The Language and Ethics of Self-Harm, New York, NY: Routledge.

Favazza, Armando, 1992, Bodies Under Siege: Self-Mutilation in Culture and Psychiatry, Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.

Headley, Lee A., and Norman L. Farberow, eds., 1983, Suicide in Asia and the Near East, Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

Hendin, Herbert, 1995, Suicide in America, New York, NY: W.W. Norton.

Hicks, Barbara Barrett, 1990, Youth Suicide: A Comprehensive Manual for Prevention and Intervention, Bloomington, IN: National Educational Service.

Lester, David, ed., 1990, Current Concepts of Suicide, Philadelphia, PA: The Charles Press Publishers.

Lester, David, 1992, Why People Kill Themselves: A 1990s Summary of Research Findings on Suicidal Behavior, Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas.

Lester, David, 1994, Patterns of Suicide and Homicide in America, New York, NY: Nova Science Publishers.

Lester, David, 1996, Patterns of Suicide and Homicide in the World, New York, NY: Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Lester, David, 1997, Making Sense of Suicide: An In-Depth Look at Why People Kill Themselves, Philadelphia, PA: The Charles Press Publishers.

Maris, Ronald W., Morton M. Silverman, and Silvia Sara Canetto, eds., 1997, Review of Suicidology, 1997, New York, NY: The Guilford Press.

Menninger, Karl, 1938, Man Against Himself,

Peters, Ray DeV., Robert J. McMahon, and Vernon L. Quinsey, eds., 1992, Aggression and Violence Throughout the Life Span, Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.

Rickgarn, Ralph L.V., 1994, Perspectives on College Student Suicide, Amityville, NY: Baywood Publishing Co., Inc.

Schneidman, Edwin S., ed., 1967, Essays in Self-Destruction, New York, NY: Jason Aronson, Inc.

Stoff, David M., and J John Mann, eds., 1997, The Neurobiology of Suicide: From the Bench to the Clinic, New York, NY: New York Academy of Sciences.

11. Family Violence: Child Neglect, Abuse, and Homicide

MAIN POINTS

1. There has been a rapid increase in public awareness of child abuse (physical, sexual, and psychological or emotional) and neglect in the last decade, and family violence has been considered as terrorism in the home.
2. Here we explore various forms of violence against children in the home, and also various form of violence committed by children including juveniles.
3. Both directions of violence appear to be sharply increasing in recent years in several countries, but most of all in the USA, according to clinical samples, official statistics, and social surveys.
4. Violence among juveniles (age 14-17 years) has increased most dramatically in the past decade, particularly in terms of homicide which is the leading cause of fatal injuries after vehicle accidents.
5. Factors influencing child violence include biological, psychological, economic, cultural, and social (familial, peer, neighborhood, media).
6. Violence in the family of orientation of parents may carry over into their own family of procreation ("intergenerational hypothesis"- abuse in childhood to abuse in parenthood).
7. Parricide (killing of parents or close relatives by children) has often related to the child who is abused, mentally ill, or antisocial to a severe degree.
8. Among proposed preventative measures which have been suggested are: reducing social isolation of the family by incorporating families into a network of kin and community; reducing violence-provoking stress (e.g., poverty and inequality); developing a negative value on violence and a positive value on nonviolence; teaching nonviolent conflict resolution techniques and skills; and
reducing sexism through education.

QUESTIONS

1. What is family or domestic violence?
2. Is its incidence and seriousness exaggerated?
3. Who are the perpetrators and the victims?
4. Is it more prevalent in lower socioeconomic classes, particular "races" or ethnic groups, or certain countries?
5. Who and/or what is responsible for family violence?
6. What is the relationship between physical punishment of a children by parents and subsequent aggression by the latter?
7. How can family violence be reduced or even prevented?
8. What are the roles of relatives, community, church, health care system, and legal system?
9. Why does child abuse and neglect occur?
10. Why do some parents kill their children?
11. Why do some children kill their parents or siblings?

REQUIRED READING

TEXT: Englander Ch. 11

Buchanan, Ann, 1996, "Cycles of Child Maltreatment: Facts and Fallacies," in her Cycles of Child Maltreatment: Facts, Fallacies, and Interventions, New York, NY: John Wiley and Sons, pp. 16-35.

Loeber, Rolf, and Dale Hay, 1997, "Key Issues in the Development of Aggression and Violence from Childhood to Early Adulthood," Annual Review of Psychology 48:371-410.

ARTICLES

Ammerman, Robert T., and Michael Hersen, 1990, "Issues in the Assessment and Treatment of Family Violence," in Treatment of Family Violence: A Sourcebook, Robert T. Ammerman and Michel Hersen, eds., New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, pp. 3-14.

Ashe, Marie, and Naomi R. Cahn, 1994, "Child Abuse: A Problem for Feminist Theory," in The Public Nature of Private Violence: The Discovery of Domestic Abuse, Martha Albertson Fineman and Roxanne Mykitiuk, eds., New York, NY: Routledge, pp. 166-194.

Browne, Kevin, 1988, "The Nature of Child Abuse and Neglect: An Overview," in Early Prediction and Prevention of Child Abuse, Kevin Browne, Cliff Davies, and Peter Stratton, eds., New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons.

Cazenave, Noel A., and Murray A. Straus, 1995, "Race, Class, Network Embeddedness, and Family Violence: A Search for Potent Support Systems," in Physical Violence in American Families, Murray A. Straus and Richard J. Gelles, eds., New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers, pp. 321-340.

Chisholm, June F., 1995, "Violent Youth: Reflections on Contemporary Child-rearing Practices in the United States as an Antecedent Cause," in Violence and the Prevention of Violence, Leonore Loeb Adler and Florence L. Denkar, eds., Westport, CT: Praeger, pp. 47-60.

Crimmius, Susan, et al., 1997, "Convicted Women Who Have Killed Children: A Self-Psychology Perspective," Journal of Interpersonal Violence 12(1):49-69.

Daro, Drborah, and Richard J. Gelles, 1992, "Public Attitudes and Behaviors with Respect to Child Abuse Prevention," Journal of Interpersonal Violence 7(4):517-531.

DiCanio, Margaret, 1993, "Rage," in her The Encyclopedia of Violence, New York, NY: Facts on File, pp. 209-211.

Draucker, Claire Burke, 1995, "A Coping Model for Adult Survivors of Childhood Sexual Abuse," Journal of Interpersonal Violence 10(2):159-175.

Gelles, Richard J., 1989, "Child Abuse- An Overview," in The Encyclopedia of Child Abuse, Robin E. Clark and Judith Freeman Clark, eds., New York, NY: Facts on File, pp. xiii-xxix.

Gelles, Richard, 1985, "Family Violence," American Review of Sociology 11:347-367.

Heide, Kathleen M., 1992, "The Phenomenon of Parricide," in her Why Kids Kill Parents: Child Abuse and Adolescent Homicide, Columbus, OH: Ohio State University Press, pp. 3-18.

Heide, Kathleen M., 1993, "Parents Who Get Killed and the Children Who Kill Them," Journal of Interpersonal Violence 8(4):531-544.

Herman, Jack L., et al., 1995, "Trauma in Children's Lives: Issues and Treatment," in Violence and the Prevention of Violence, Leonore Loeb Adler and Florence L. Denmark, eds., Violence and the Prevention of Violence, Westport, CT: Praeger, pp. 61-84.

Howells, Kevin, 1989, "Anger-Management Methods in Relation to the Prevention of Violent Behaviour," in Human Aggression: Naturalistic Approaches, John Archer and Kevin Browne, ed., New York, NY: Routledge, pp. 153-181.

Jones, Linda E., 1991, "The Minnesota School Curriculum Project: A Statewide Domestic Violence Prevention Project in Secondary Schools," in Dating Violence: Young Women in Danger, Barrie Levy, ed., Seattle, WA: The Seal Press, pp. 258-266.

Kent, Cheryl Carey, 1991, "Ritual Abuse," in Case Studies in Family Violence, Robert T. Ammerman and Michel Hersen, eds., New York, NY: Plenum Press, pp. 187-208.

Knutson, John F., Helen A. Schartz, and Lisa Y. Zaidi, 1991, "Victim Risk Factors in the Physical Abuse of Children," in Targets of Violence and Aggression, Ronald Baenninger, ed., New York, NY: North-Holland, pp. 103-158.

Kunz, Jenifer, and Stephen J. Bahr, 1996, "A Profile of Parental Homicide Against Children," Journal of Family Violence 11(4):347-362.

Levy, Barrie, and Kerry Lobel, 1991, "Lesbian Teens in Abusive Relationships," in Dating Violence: Young Women in Danger, Barrie Levy, ed., Seattle, WA: The Seal Press, pp. 203-208.

Levy, Howard B., Stephen H. Sheldon, and John R. Conte, 1989, "Special Intervention Programs for Child Victims of Violence," in Family Violence: Emerging Issues of a National Crisis, Leah J. Dickstein and Carol C. Nadelson, eds., Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Press, Inc., pp. 179-212.

Lystad, Mary, 1989, "Community Prevention Programs in Family Violence," in Family Violence: Emerging Issues of a National Crisis, Leah J. Dickstein and Carol C. Nadelson, eds., Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Press, Inc., pp. 213-228.

Marcus, Isabel, 1994, "Reframing "Domestic Violence": Terrorism in the Home," in The Public Nature of Private Violence: The Discovery of Domestic Abuse, Martha Albertson Fineman and Roxanne Mykitiuk, eds., New York, NY: Routledge, pp. 11-35.

Meyer, Dan, 1995, "Incest: The Most Personal Violence," in Violence and the Prevention of Violence, Leonore Loeb Adler and Fl;orence L. Denmark, eds., Westport, CT: Praeger, pp. 85-100.

Newhill, Christina E., 1991, "Parricide," Journal of Family Violence 6(4):375-394.

O'Donoghue, Joseph, 1995, "Juvenile Violence and the Death Penalty," in Violence and the Prevention of Violence, Leonore Loeb Adler and Florence L. Denmark, eds., Westport, CT: Praeger, pp. 109-120.

Parson, Erwin Randolph, 1997, "Posttraumatic Child Therapy (P-TCT) Assessment and Treatment Factors in Clinical Work with Inner-City Children Exposed to Catastrophic Community Violence," Journal of Interpersonal Violence 12(2):172-194.

Rosenberg, Mindy S., and Ronita S. Giberson, 1991, "The Child Witness of Family Violence," in Case Studies in Family Violence, Robert T. Ammerman and Michel Hersen, eds., New York, NY: Plenum Press, pp. 231-254.

Snow, Barbara, and Teena Sorensen, 1990, "Ritualistic Child Abuse in a Neighborhood Setting," Journal of Interpersonal; Violence 5(4):474-487.

Wason-Ellam, Linda, 1997, "Video Games: Playing on a Violent Playground," in Systemic Violence in Education, Juanita Ross Epp and Ailsa M. Watkinson, eds., Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, pp. 72-93.

Wiehe, Vernon R., 1990, "Religious Influence on Parental Attitudes Toward the Use of Corporal Punishment," Journal of Family Violence 5(2):173-186.

BOOKS

Ammerman, Robert T., and Michel Hersen, eds., 1990, Treatment of Family Violence: A Sourcebook, New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons.

Ammerman, Robert T., and Michel Hersen, eds., 1991, Case Studies in Family Violence, New York, NY: Plenum Press.

Barnett, Ola W., et al., 1997, Family Violence Across the Life Span: An Introduction, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Blackman, Julie, 1989, Intimate Violence: A Study of Injustice, New York, NY: Columbia University Press.

Bray, Madge, 1991, Sexual Abuse- The Child's Voice: Poppies on the Rubbish Heap, Bristol, PA: Jessica Kingsley Publishers.

Browne, Kevin, and Martin Herbert, 1997, Preventing Family Violence, New York, NY: John Wiley and Sons.

Buchanan, Ann, 1996, Cycles of Child Maltreatment: Facts, Fallacies, and Intervention, New York, NY: John Wiley and Sons.

Burgess, Ann Wolbert, ed., 1992, Child Trauma- Issues and Research, New York, NY: Garland Publishing, Inc.

Elliott, Michelle, 1993, Female Sexual Abuse of Children, New York, NY: Guilford Press.

Eron, L.D., J.H. Gentry, and P. Schlegel, eds., 1994, Reason to hope: A Psychosocial Perspective on Violence and Youth, Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association.

Ewing, Charles P., 1990, When Children Kill: The Dynamics of Juvenile Homicide, New York, NY: Free Press.

Ewing, Charles Patrick, 1997, Fatal Families: The Dynamics of Intrafamilial Homicide, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Ferris, Craig F., and Thomas Grisso, eds., 1996, Understanding Aggressive Behavior in Children, New York, NY: New York Academy of Sciences.

Hausfater, G., and S. Blaffer Hardy, eds., 1984, Infanticide: Comparative and Evolutionary Perspective, New York, NY: Aldine de Gruyter.

Huckabee, Mike, George Grant, 1998, Kids Who Kill: Confronting Our Culture of Violence, Nashville, TN: Broadman and Holman.

Janko, Susan, 1994, Vulnerable Children, Vulnerable Families: The Social Construction of Child Abuse, New York, NY: Teachers College Press.

Kohl, Marvin, ed., 1978, Infanticide and the Value of Life, Buffalo, NY: Prometheus Books.

National Research Council, 1993, Understanding Child Abuse and Neglect, Washington, D.C.: National Research Council.

Potter-Efron, R., 1994, Angry All the Time: An Emergency Guide to Anger Control, Oakland, CA: Harbinger Publications.

Ruscovsky, Arnaldo, 1995, Felicide, Northvale, NJ: Aronson.

Warner, Carmen Germaine, 1981, Conflict Intervention in Social and Domestic Violence, Bowie, MD: Robert J. Brady Co.

Wilczynski, Ania, 1997, Child Homicide, Lodnon, England: Greenwich Medical Media, Ltd.

Willis, Diane J., E. Wayne Holden, and Mindy Rosenberg, 1992, Prevention of Child Maltreatment: Developmental and Ecological Perspectives, New York, NY: John Wiley and Sons.

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12. Family Violence: Spouse Neglect, Abuse, and Homicide

MAIN POINTS

1. Once viewed as rare and confined to mentally ill offenders, since the 1960s violence in the home has increasingly captured the attention of society and scientists as a major public health problem and sociopolitical issue in the USA and beyond.
2. Family and domestic violence are a variety of terrorism, only in the context of the home, but a marriage license is not for hitting let alone murder.
3. Various theories advanced by social and behavioral scientists to explain family violence include resource, systems, ecological, exchange, patriarchy, sociobiology, economic, and sociocultural theories.
4. The cause of the prevention of domestic violence has been advanced to some degree through educational programs in schools such as in the statewide Minnesota School Curriculum Project in which teachers in the regular classroom curriculum teach students about domestic violence and skills to avoid abusive situations as either perpetrator or victim.
5. For perpetrators of domestic and other kinds of violence, anger-management techniques and skills derived from psychological research in clinical therapy are one intervention which has proven successful at reducing or even eliminating domestic violence in many cases.

QUESTIONS

1. What is the difference between private and public violence?
2. What is the character and extent (incidence and prevalence) of family violence including sexual abuse, marital rape, battering, and murder?
3. Does the character and extent of violence vary with different types of families (e.g., nuclear or extended, single parent, step parent, gay or lesbian)?
4. Are there any typical profiles which characterize the perpetrators, victims, and contexts of family violence?
5. What are the short-term and long-term physical, psychological, and social symptoms of victims of family violence?
6. How do different sectors of society vary in their social construction and moral evaluation of family violence?
7. What are the various theories that social scientists have advanced to explain family violence and what are the pros and cons of each?
8. How are gender roles in society involved in family violence?
9. What factors determine whether a wife remains or leaves an abusive husband?
10. Is the battered woman syndrome a legitimate defense for the murder of a husband?
11. Why is family violence a socipolitical and feminist issue, public health problem, and policy concern?

REQUIRED READING

TEXT: Englander Ch. 10

Howells, Kevin, 1989, "Anger-Management Methods in Relation to the Prevention of Violent Behaviour," in Human Aggression: Naturalistic Approaches, John Archer and Kevin Browne, eds., New York, NY: Routledge, pp. 153-81.

Jones, Linda E., 1991, "The Minnesota School Curriculum Project: A Statewide Domestic Violence Prevention Project in Secondary Schools," in Dating Violence: Young Women in Danger, Barrie Levy, ed., Minneapolis, MN: The Seal Press, pp. 258-266.

ARTICLES

Alexander, Renata, 1993, "Wife-Beating: An Australian Perspective," Journal of Family Violence 8(3):229-251.

Differences: A Journal of Feminist Cultural Studies special issue "On Violence" 1996, 8(2):1-173.

Edelson, Jeffrey L., 1990, "Judging the Success of Intervention with Men Who Batter," in Family Violence: Research and Public Policy Issues, Douglas J. Besharov, ed., Washington, D.C.: The American Enterprise Institute, pp. 130-145.

Ferraro, Kathleen J., 1996, "The Dance of Dependency: A Genealogy of Domestic Violence Discourse," Hypatia 11(4):77-91.

Follingstad, Diane R., et al., 1991, "Identification of Patterns of Wife Abuse," Journal of Interpersonal Violence 6(2):187-204.

Gelles, Richard J., 1995, "Methodological Issues in the Study of Family Violence," in Physical Violence in American Families, Murray A. Straus and Richard J. Gelles, eds., New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers, pp. 17-28.

Gelles, Richard J., and Murray A. Straus, 1995, "The Medical and Psychological Costs of Family Violence," in Physical Violence in American Families, Murray A. Straus and Richard J. Gelles, eds., New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers, pp. 425-430.

Gender and Society, 1989, 3(4), special issue "Violence Against Women."

Gershenson, Charles P., 1990, "Alternative Analytical Paradigms for Conducting Policy-Oriented Research," in Family Violence: Research and Public Policy Issues, Douglas J. Besharov, ed., Washington, D.C.: The American Enterprise Institute, pp. 82-92.

Harris, Mary B., 1992, "Sex and Ethnic Differences in Past Aggressive Behaviors," Journal of Family Violence 7(2):85-102.

Heberle, Renee, 1996, "Destructive Strategies and the Movement Against Sexual Violence," Hypatia 11(4):63-76.

Hyde, Janet Shibley, 1996, "Where Are the Gender Differences? Where Are the Gender Similarities?," in Sex, Power, Conflict: Evolutionary and Feminist Perspectives, David M. Buss and Neil M. Malamuth, eds., New York, NY: Oxford University Press, pp. 107-118.

Hypatia: A Journal of Feminist Philosophy, special issue on "Women and Violence," 1996, 11(4):1-147.

Jain, Ranjana S., 1992, "Familial Violence in India: The Dynamics of Victimization," in Critical Issues in Victimology: International Perspectives, Emilio C. Viano, ed., New York, NY: Springer Verlag, pp. 80-86.

Kurz, Demie, 19??, "Social Science Perspectives on Wife Abuse: Current Debates and Future Directions," in Violence Against Women: The Bloody Footprints, Pauline B. Bart and Eileen Geil Moran, eds., Newbury Park, CA: Sage, pp. 252-269.

Lee, Robert S., 1995, "Machismo Values and Violence in America: An Empirical Study," in Violence and the Prevention of Violence, Leonore Loeb Adler and Florence L. Denmark, eds., Westport, CT: Praeger, pp. 11-32.

Krausss, Herbert H., and Beatrice J. Krauss, 1995, "Domestic Violence and Its Prevention," in Violence and the Prevention of Violence, Leonore Loeb Adler and Florence L. Denmark, eds., Westport, CT: Praeger, pp. 129-144.

Lloyd, Sally A., 1990, "Conflict Types and Strategies in Violent Marriages," Journal of Family Violence 5(4):269-284.

Mancuso, Peter J., Jr., 1989, "Domestic Violence and the Police: Theory, Policy, and Practice," in Family Violence: Emerging Issues of a National Crisis, Leah J. Dickstein and Carol C. Nadelson, eds., Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Press, Inc., pp. 125-141.

Marshall, Linda L., 1992, "Development of the Severity of Violence Against Women Scales," Journal of Family Violence 7(2):103-121.

Marshall, Linda L., 1992, "The Severity of Violence Against Men Scales," Journal of Family Violence 7(3):189-203.

Nadelson, Carol C., and Maria Sauzier, 1989, "Intervention Programs for Individual Victims and Their Families," in Family Violence: Emerging Issues of a National Crisis, Leah J. Dickstein and Carol C. Nadelson, eds., Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Press, Inc., pp. 155-178.

Norton, Ilena M., and Spero M. Manson, 1995, "A Silent Minority: Battered American Indian Women," Journal of Family Violence 10(3):307-318.

Paul, Luci, and MaryAnn Baenninger, 1991, "Aggression by Women: Mores, Myths, and Methods," in Targets of Violence and Aggression, Ronald Baenninger, ed., Targets of Violence and Aggression, New York, NY: North-Holland, pp. 401-442.

Peled, Einat, and Jeffrey L. Edelson, 1994, "Advocacy for Battered Women: A National Survey," Journal of Family Violence 9(3):285-296.

Petrie, Carol, and Joel Garner, 1990, "Is Violence Preventable?," in Family Violence: Research and Public Policy Issues, Douglas J. Besharov, ed., Washington, D.C.: The American Enterprise Institute, pp. 164-184.

Roberts, Albert R., 1996, "Battered Women Who Kill: A Comparable Study of Incarcerated Participants with a Community Sample of Battered Women," Journal of Family Violence 11(3):291-304.

Russo, Nancy Felipe, Mary P. Koss, and Lisa Goodman, 1995, "Male Violence Against Women: A Global Health and Development Issue, in Violence and the Prevention of Violence, Leonore Loeb Adler and Florence L. Denmark, eds., Westport, CT: Praeger, pp. 121-128.

Schwartz, Martin D., and Christine L. Mattley, 1993, "The Battered Woman Scale and Gender Identities," Journal of Family Violence 8(3):277-287.

Sirles, Elizabeth, Eve Lipchik, and Kate Kowalski, 1993, "A Consumer's Perspective on Domestic Violence Interventions," Journal Family Violence 8(3):267-276.

Stout, Karen D., 1991, "Intimate Femicide: A National Demographic Overview," Journal of Interpersonal Violence 6(4):476-485.

Sullivan, Chris M., 1991, "The Provision of Advocacy Services for Women Leaving Abusive Partners," Journal of Interpersonal Violence 6(1):41-54.

Ting-Toomey, Stella, et al., 1991, "Culture, Face Maintenance, and Styles of Handling Interpersonal Conflict: A Study of Five Cultures," International Journal of Conflict Management 2(4):275-296.

Tolman, Richard D., and Larry W. Bennett, 1990, "A Review of Quantitative Research on Men Who Batter," Journal of Interpersonal Violence 5(1):87-118.

Veenstra, Glenn T., and Cynthia G. Scott, 1993, "A Model for Using Time Out as an Intervention Technique with Families," Journal of Family Violence 8(1):71-87.

Williams-White, Deborah, 1989, "Self-Help and Advocacy: An Alternative Approach to Helping Battered Women," in Family Violence: Emerging Issues of a National Crisis, Leah J. Dickstein and Carol C. Nadelson, eds., Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Press, Inc., pp. 45-60.

Wilson, Margo, Martin Daly, and Antonietta Daniele, 1995, "Familicide: The Killing of Spouse and Children," Aggressive Behavior 21(4):275-291.

Yllo, Kersti A., and Murray A. Straus, 1995, "Patriarchy and Violence against Wives: The Impact of Structural and Normative Factors," in Physical Violence in American Families, Murray A. Straus and Richard J. Gelles, eds., New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers, pp. 383-402.

BOOKS

Beskarov, Douglas J., ed., 1990, Family Violence: Research and Public Policy Issues, Washington, D.C.: The American Enterprise Institute.

Brown, Lou, Francois Dubau, and Merritt McKeon, 1997, Stop Domestic Violence: An Action Plan for Saving Lives, New York, NY: St. Martin's Griffin.

Campbell, Jacquelyn C., 1995, Assessing Dangerousness: Violence by Sexual Offenders, Batterers, and Child Abusers, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Crawley, John, 1992, Constructive Conflict Management: Managing to Make a Difference, London, UK: Nicholas Brealey.

Davis, Richard L., 1998, Domestic Violence: Facts and Fallacies, Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers.

Dobash, R.E., and R. Dobash, 1979, Violence Against Wives, New York, NY: Free Press.

Donohue, William, and Robert Kolt, 1992, Managing Interpersonal Conflict, Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

Ewing, Charles Patrick, 1997, Fatal Families: The Dynamics of Intrafamilial Homicide, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Felder, Raoul, and Barbara Victor, 1996, Getting Away with Murder: Weapons for the War Against Domestic Violence, New York, NY: Simon and Schuster.

Gordon, Linda, 1988, Heroes of Their Own Lives: The Politics and History of Family Violence, Poston 1880-1960, New York, NY: Viking.

Horsfall, Jan, 1991, The Presence of the Past: Male Violence in the Family, North Sydney, Australia: Allen & Unwin.

Javier, Rafael Art, and Willam G. Herron, 1996, Domestic Violence: Assessment and Treatment, Northvale, NJ: Jason Aronson.

McBride, James, 1995, War, Battering and Other Sports: The Gulf Between American Men and Women, Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press.

Ohlin, Lloyd, and Michael Tonry, 1989, Family Violence, Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.

Richters, J.M. Annemiek, 1994, Women, Culture and Violence: A Development, Health and Human Rights Issue, Leiden, The Netherlands: Leiden University Women and Autonomy Centre.

Schmidt, K. Louise, 1995, Transforming Abuse: Nonviolent Resistance and Recovery, Philadelphia, PA: New Society Publishers.

Swisher, Karin L., Carol Wekesser, and William Barbour, eds., 1994, Violence Against Women, San Diego, CA: Greenhaven Press, Inc.

Viano, E.C., ed., 1992, Intimate Violence: Interdisciplinary Perspectives, Washington, D.C.: Hemisphere Publishing Corp.

Yllo, K., and M. Bogard, eds., 1988, Feminist Perspectives on Wife Abuse, Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

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13. Family Violence: Elderly Neglect, Abuse, and Homicide

MAIN POINTS

1. The least recognized and researched aspect of family violence may be abuse, neglect, and violence against the elderly (age 60 years and older) by family members, friends, neighbors, care givers, and in some respects even society.
2. As longevity is prolonged and the percentage of older people in the population of the USA and other countries increases this problem will grow in incidence and in recognition.
3. Factors which may contribute to maltreatment of the elderly include family dynamics (e.g., violence as a normative behavior learned in the family), vulnerability through impairment and dependence, personality traits of the perpetrator, filial crisis (unresolved adolescent rebellion), internal and external stresses
(e.g., alcoholism, poverty, unemployment), and negative attitudes toward the elderly.
4. A cross-cultural perspective on attitudes toward and treatment of the elderly provides revealing insights and alternative models.

QUESTIONS

1. What is the character and extent of abuse, neglect, and violence against the elderly?
2. How does this vary with class, "race," ethnicity, country, and history?
3. What causal factors are involved?
4. What preventative, intervention, and policy measures may be pursued?
5. What are the moral, ethical, legal, public health, and social work implications of violence against the elderly?

REQUIRED READING

Hudson, J. Edward, 1988, "Elder Abuse: An Overview," in Abuse of the Elderly: Issues and Annotated Bibliography, Benjamin Schlesinger and Rachel Schlesinger, eds., Toronto, Ontario, Canada: University of Toronto Press, pp. 12-31.

ARTICLES

Beassley, Michele E., and Dorothy Q. Thomas, 1994, "Domestic Violence as a Human Rights Issue," in The Public Nature of Private Violence: The Discovery of Domestic Abuse, Martha Albertson Fineman and Roxanne Mykitiuk, eds., New York, NY: Routledge, pp. 323-348.

Glascock, Anthony P., 1984, "Decrepitude and Death-Hastening: The Nature of Old Age in Third World Societies," Studies in Third World Societies 22:43-67.

Hornick, Joseph P., Lynn McDonald, and Gerald B. Robertson, 1992, "Elder Abuse in Canada and the United States: Prevalence, Legal, and Service Issues," in Aggression and Violence Throughout the Life Span, Ray DeV. Peters, Robert J. McMahon, and Vernon L. Quinsey, eds., Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications, pp. 301-336.

Nadien, Margot B., 1995, "Elder Violence (Maltreatment) in Domestic Settings: Some Theory and Research," in Violence and the Prevention of Violence, Leonore Loeb Adler and Florence L. Denmark, eds., Westport, CT: Praeger, pp. 177-190.

(also see journals on geriatrics, gerontology, family, and social work)

BOOKS

Bennett, Gerald, and Paul Kingston, 1994, Elder Abuse: Concepts, Theories and Interviews, New York, NY: Chapman and Hall.

Decalmer, P., and F. Glendenning, 1993, The Mistreatment of Elderly, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Kosberg, J.I., ed., 1983, Abuse and Maltreatment of the Elderly: Causes and Interventions, Boston, MA: John Wright.

Pritchard, Jacki, 1988, The Abuse of Older People: A Training Manual for Detection and Prevention, Bristol, PA: Jessica Kingsley Publishers.

Quinn, Mary Joy, and Susan K. Tomita, 1997, Elder Abuse and Neglect: Causes, Diagnosis, and Intervention Strategies, New York, NY: Springer Publishing Co.

Schlesinger, Benjamin, and Rachel Shlesinger, eds., 1988, Abuse of the Elderly: Issues and Annotated Bibliography, Toronto, Ontario, Canada: University of Toronto Press.

 

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14. Sexual Violence Including Rape

MAIN POINTS

1. Gender biased violence and crimes are directed mainly against women: in the USA some woman is beaten by her husband or boyfriend every 15 seconds (3-4 million/year) while some woman is forcibly raped every six minutes; three out of every four women will be the victim of at least one violent crime during their lifetime; the rates of violent crimes against women are higher in the USA and increasing markedly.
2. Rape is violent by definition, eroticized violence, and a crime of power with sex as the weapon. The majority of rapists and their victims are young (teenage to early twenties) and more likely to be white and low income, although the rapes of black females are disproportionate to their numbers; however, statistics are problematic because probably fewer than 10% of all rapes are reported.
3. This social and gender pattern of violence reflects differences in physical size and strength as well as social status, males being more prone to violence than females, machismo, patriarchy, misogyny, and other factors.
4. During this century and especially in more recent decades American society has become much more open and critical in recognizing sexual harassment, wife abuse, rape, and other violence against women as major problems requiring more effective preventive, intervention, and legal measures.
5. This reflects changes in the woman's economic and political roles in society, increased media and government attention, advances in the human rights and women's movements as well as the legal system, feminism, etc.
6. From the Crusades to the Balkans rape has often been associated with warfare as an expression of power, intimidation, and humiliation of the enemy, and frequently male relatives of the victim are forced to watch.

QUESTIONS

1. What causes male violence against women?
2. Is sexual harassment a form of violence?
3. Is sexual harassment really a serious problem?
4. What causes sexual harassment?
5. What causes sexual abuse of children?
6. What causes rape?
7. Do gender inequality, pornography, social disorganization, and the American ethos of violence, competition, and dominance contribute to male sexual violence against women?
8. How widespread is rape, is it an epidemic?
9. How does rape vary cross-culturally and cross-nationally?
10. How can violence against women be reduced?
11. Are individuals and/or society responsible for violence against women?
12. Are individuals and/or society responsible for
sexual abuse of children?

REQUIRED READING

TEXT: Englander Ch. 9; Nordstrom and Robben pp. 155-184.

Pollard, Paul, 1994, "Sexual Violence Against Women: Characteristics of Typical Perpetrators," in Male Violence, John Archer, ed., New York, NY: Routledge, pp. 170-194.

CASES

Dowdeswell, Jane, 1986, Women on Rape, Wellingborough, NY: Thorsons Publishing Group.

Richters, J.M. Annemiek, 1994, Women, Culture and Violence: A Development, Health and Human Rights Issue. Leiden, The Netherlands: Leiden University Women and Autonomy Centre.

Vogelman, Lloyd, 1990, The Sexual Face of Violence: Rapists on Rape, Johannesburg, S. Africa: Ravan Press, Ltd.

ARTICLES

Belkin, David S., et al., 1994, "Psychopathology and History of Sexual Abuse," Journal of Interpersonal Violence 9(4):535-547.

Ben-David, Sarah, 1993, "The Two Facets of Female Violence: The Public and the Domestic Domains," Journal of Family Violence 8(4):345-359.

Bohner, Gerd, and Norbert Schwartz, 1996, "The Threat of Rape: Its Psychological Impact on Nonvictimized Women," in Sex, Power, Conflict: Evolutionary and Feminist Perspectives, David M. Buss and Neil M. Malamuth, eds., New York, NY: Oxford University Press, pp. 162-177.

Ehrhart, Julie, and Bernice Sandler, 1985, "Campus Gang Rape: Party Games?," Association of American Colleges, Washington, D.C.

Gamache, Denise, 1991, "Domination and Control: The Social Context of Dating Violence," in Dating Violence: Young Women in Danger, Barrie Levy, ed., Seattle, WA: The Seal press, pp. 69-83.

Hayashino, Diane S., Sand K. Wurtele, and Kelli J. Klebe, 1995, "Child Molesters: An Examination of Cognitive Factors," Journal of Interpersonal Violence 19(1):106-116.

Journal of Interpersonal Violence 1993, 8(2), special issue "Rape."

Otterbein, Keith F., 1979, "A Cross-Cultural Study of Rape," Aggressive Behavior 5:425-435.

Palmer, Craig, 1989, "Is Rape a Cultural Universal? A Re-Examination of the Ethnographic Data," Ethnology 28:1-16.

Pollard, Paul, 1994, "Sexual Violence Against Women: Characteristics of Typical Perpetrators," in Male Violence, John Archer, ed., New York, NY: Routledge, pp. 170-195.

Sanday, Peggy R., 1981, "The Socio-Cultural Context of Rape: A Cross-Cultural Study," Journal of Social Issues 37:5-27.

Tang, Catherine So-Kum, et al., 1995, "How Do Chinese College Students Define Sexual Harassment," Journal of Interpersonal Violence 10(4):503-515.

Ullman, Sarah E., and Raymond A. Knight, 1992, "Fighting Back: Women's Resistance to Rape," Journal of Interpersonal Violence 7(1):31-43.

Warren, Janet I., et al., 1991, "Prediction of Rapist Type and Violence from Verbal, Physical, and Sexual Scales," Journal of Interpersonal Violence 6(1):55-67.

BOOKS

Baron, Larry, and Murray A. Straus, 1989, Four Theories of Rape in American Society: A State-Level Analysis, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.

Brownmiller, Susan, 1975, Against Our Will,

Caputi, Jane, 1987, The Age of Sex Crime,

Ellis, Lee, 1989, Theories of Rape: Inquiries into the Causes of Sexual Aggression, New York, NY: Hemisphere Publishing Corporation.

Katz, Sedelle, and Mary Ann Mazur, 1979, Understanding the Rape Victim: A Synthesis of Research Findings, New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons.

Kelly, Liz, 1988, Surviving Sexual Violence, Cambridge, MA: Polity Press.

Koss, Mary P., and Mary R. Harvey, 1991, The Rape Victim: Clinical and Community Interventions, Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

Leone, Bruno, and Katie de Koster, eds., 1995, Rape on Campus, San Diego, CA: Greenhaven Press, Inc.

Levy, Barrie, ed., 1991, Dating Violence: Young Women in Danger, Seattle, WA: The Seal Press.

Matthews, Nancy A., 1994, Confronting Rape: The Feminist Anti-Rape Movement and the State, New York, NY: Routledge.

Mitchell, Julian, and Jill Morse, 1998, From Victims to Survivors: Reclaimed Voices of Women Sexually Abuse in Childhood, Bristol, PA: Taylor and Francis.

Ryan, Gail, and Sandy Lane, eds., 1997, Juvenile Sexual Offending: Causes, Consequences, and Corrections, San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Publishers.

Sanday, Peggy Reeves, 1990, Fraternity Gang Rape: Sex, Brotherhood, and Privilege on Campus,

Sunday, Suzanne R., and Ethel Tobach, eds., 1985, Violence Against Women: A Critique of the Sociobiology of Rape, New York, NY: Gordian Press.

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15. Homicide (including serial and mass killers)

MAIN POINTS

1. Most murderers are men, and in the USA most homicides are committed with firearms.
2. In the majority of cases the murderers and victims are acquainted as family or friends, although stranger homicides are on the increase; an important factor is victim vulnerability.
2. A disproportionate percentage of murder victims are young men and black.
3. In the US serial murders were relatively rare until the 1960s.
4. The vast majority of serial killers are white males and most of their victims are women (e.g., Ted Bundy, David Berkowitz).
4. The number of victims of a serial killer and the viciousness of the crime (including torture and mutilation) are both increasing.
5. Pornography (including "snuff films") can be a significant contributing factor.
6. These facts about serial killers and other considerations have led some authorities to view violence against women as part of a reign of sexual terror in society.
7. Mass murders kill numerous people in one episode or within a brief period; and the three types of mass murders are family slayings, for profit or expediency, and for sex or sadism.

QUESTIONS

1. Why do people commit murder, are they just monsters, insane, or socio- or psycho-pathic personalities?
2. Is murder ever justified?
3. Are murders in any sense also victims?
4. How does homicide vary by classes (age, sex, socioeconomic), regionally, historically, cross-culturally, and cross-nationally?
5. What theories have been proposed to explain murder?
5. What weapons are most commonly used in homicide?
6. How would adequate gun control affect homicide and other crimes? 7. Is gun ownership an effective way to defend oneself?
8. Do citizens in the USA have a right to own any kind of gun?
9. What is the relationship between guns and violence in other cultures and nations?
10.Do other societies and nations have effective means to control guns and related violence?

REQUIRED READING

Devine, Philip E., 1978, "Justifications of Homicide," in The Ethics of Homicide, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, pp. 134-166.

Keeney, Belea T., and Kathleen M. Heide, 1994, "Gender Differences in Serial Murderers," Journal of Interpersonal Violence 9(3):383-398.

CASES

Bugliosi, Vincent, and curt Gentry, 1974, Helter Skelter: The True Story of the Manson Murders, New York, NY: W.W. Norton & Co., Inc.

Capote, Truman, 1965, In Cold Blood: A True Account of a Multiple Murder and Its Consequences, New York, NY: Random House.

Emmons, Nuel, 1986, Manson in His Own Words: As Told to Nuel Emmons, New York, NY: Grove Press.

Gibbs, Nancy, et al., 1996, Mad Genius: The Odyssey, Pursuit, and Capture of the Unabomber Suspect, New York, NY: WarnerBooks, Inc.

Palmer, Stuart, 1960, The Psychology of Murder, New York, NY: Thomas Y. Crowell, Co. (includes interviews with murderers).

ARTICLES

Genser, Lillian Mellen, 1990, "Peace Education- A Response to Violence in Detroit," in Perspectives on Nonviolence, V.K. Kool, ed., New York, NY: Springer-Verlag, pp. 238-246.

Journal of Interpersonal Violence 1990, 5(2), special issue "Black Homicide: A Public Health Crisis."

Keeney, Belea T., and Kathleen M. Heide, 1994, "Gender Differences in Serial Murderers: A Preliminary Analysis," Journal of Interpersonal Violence 9(3):383-398.

Larson, Erik, 1994, "The Culture," in his Lethal Passage: How the Travels of a Single Handgun Expose the Roots of America's Gun Crisis, New York, NY: Crown Publishers, pp. 161-199.

Palmer, Stuart, 1973, "Characteristics of Homicide and Suicide Victims in Forty Non-Literate Societies," in Victimology: A New Focus: Volume IV Violence and Its Victims, Israel Drapkin and Emilio Viano, eds., Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, pp. 43-53.

Rosenberg, Sharon, 1996, "Intersecting Memories: Bearing Witness to the 1989 Massacre of Women in Montreal," Hypatia 11(4):119-129.

Unnithan, N. Prabha, Lin Huff-Corzine, and Hugh P. Whitt, 1994, "Cross-National Patterns of Lethal Violence," in The Currents of Lethal Violence: An Integrated Model of Suicide and Homicide, N. Prabha Unnithan, et al., Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, pp. 117-143.

BOOKS

Barrett, Paul W., and Mary H. Barrett, 1988, Young Brothers Massacre, Columbia, MO: University of Missouri Press.

Bortnick, Barry, 1995, Polly Klass- the Murder of America's Child, New York, NY: Kensington Publishing Co.

Cawthorne, Nigel, 1995, Satanic Murder, London, UK: True Crime.

Cooper, David E., ed., 1974, The Manson Murders: A Philosophical Inquiry, Cambridge, MA: Schenkman Publishing Co.

Daly, Martin, and Margo Wilson, 1988, Homicide, New York, NY: Aldine de Gruyter.

DeVine, Philip E., 1978, The Ethics of Homicide, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.

Egger, Steven A., 1998, The Killers Among Us: An Examination of Serial Murder and Its Investigation, Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Giannangelo, Stephen J., 1996, The Psychopathology of Serial Murder: A Theory of Violence, Westport, CT: Praeger.

Hartman, Mary S., 1977, Victorian Murderers, New York, NY: Robson Books.

Hickey, Eric W., 1991, Serial Murderers and Their Victims, Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole Publishing Co.

Holmes, Ronald M., and Stephen T. Holmes, 1994, Murder in America, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Kelleher, Michael D., and C.L. Kelleher, 1998, Murder Most Rare: The Female Serial Killer, New york, NY: Praeger.

Knox, Sara L., 1998, Murder: A Tale of Modern American Life, Durham, NC: Duke University Press.

Lavergne, Gary M., 1997, A Sniper in the Tower: The Charles Witman Murders, Denton, TX: University of North Texas Press.

Lester, David, 1995, Serial Killers: The Insatiable Passion, Philadelphia, PA: The Charles Press, Publishers.

Levin, Jack, and James Alan Fox, 1985, Mass Murderer: America's Growing Menace,

Malin, Irving, 1968, Truman Capote's In Cold Blood: A Critical Handbook, Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Co.

Norris, Joel, 1988, Serial Killers, New York, NY: Doubleday/Anchor.

Ressler, Robert K., 1997, Tom Schachtman: I Have Lived Inside the Monster, New York, NY: St. Martin's Press.

Samenow, Stanton E., 1984, Inside the Criminal Mind, New York, NY: Time Books.

Schreck, Nikolas, et al., eds., 1988, The Manson File, New York, NY: Amok Press.

Seltzer, Mark, 1998, Serial Killers: Death and Life in America's Wound Culture, New York, NY: Routledge.

Tithecott, Richard, 1997, Of Men and Monsters: Jeffrey Dahmer and the Construction of the Serial Killer, Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press.

Unnithan, N. Prabha, et al., 1994, The Currents of Lethal Violence: An Integrated Model of Suicide and Homicide, Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.

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PART III - INTERGROUP AND INSTITUTIONAL VIOLENCE

16. Blood or Revenge Feuding and Raiding

MAIN POINTS

1. Blood or revenge feuding is a common form of intergroup violence in many different types of societies from the Yanomami to the USA early in this century through today (e.g., US bombing of terrorist facilities in Afghanistan and Sudan).
2. Although the universality of war is a contentious question, less so is the universality or at least generality of blood revenge.
3. Blood revenge may be one component of war, but blood revenge may also be pursued independently of war in societies which are otherwise relatively nonviolent and peaceful.

QUESTIONS

1. What is the nature of conflict, violence, and murder in connection with blood or revenge feuding and associated raiding and ambush behavior?
2. How and why have these changed in the courses of cultural evolution and history?
3. Are blood feuding and raiding really warfare?

REQUIRED READING

Chagnon, Napoleon A., 1996, "Chronic Problems in Understanding Tribal Violence and Warfare," in Genetics of Criminal and Antisocial Behavior, G.R. Bock and J.A. Goode, eds., Ciba Foundation Symposium 194, New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, pp. 202-236.

Boehm, Christopher, 1984, "Feuding in the Nonliterate World," in his Blood Revenge: The Enactment and Management of Conflict in Montenegro and Other Tribal Societies, Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, pp. 191-227.

Levinson, David, 1994, "Feuding," in his Aggression and Conflict: A Cross-Cultural Encyclopedia, Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, pp. 63-66.

CASES

Chagnon, Napoleon A., 1997. Yanomamo, New York, NY: Harcourt Brace College Publishers.

Rice, O.K., 1982, The Hatfields and the McCoys. Lexington, KY: University of Kentucky Press.

Bohem, Christopher, 1986, Blood Revenge: The Enactment and Management of Conflict in Montenegro and Other Tribal Societies, Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvannia Press?

ARTICLES

Chagnon, Napoleon A., 1988, "Life Histories, Blood Revenge, and Warfare in a Tribal Population," Science 239:985-991.

DiCanio, Margaret, 1993, "Revenge," in her The Encyclopedia of Violence, New York, NY: Facts on File, pp. 226-229.

Dirks, Robert, 1988, "Annual Rituals of Conflict," American Anthropologist 90:856-870.

Ember, Carol R., and Melvin Ember, 1994, "War, Socialization, and Interpersonal Violence," Journal of Conflict Resolution 38(4):620-646.

Ferguson, R. Brian, 1992, "Tribal Warfare," Scientific American 266(1):108-113.

Ferguson, R. brian, 1992, "A Savage Encounter: Western Contact and the Yanomami War Complex," in War in the Tribal Zone: Expanding States and Indigenous Warfare, R.B. Ferguson and N.L. Whitehead, eds., Santa Fe, NM: School for American Research, pp. 199-227.

Eriksen, Karen Paige, and Heather Horton, 1992, "Blood Feuds": Cross-Cultural Variations in Kin Group Vengeance," Behavior Science Research 26(1-4):57-85.

Gibson, Thomas, 1990, "Raiding, Trading, and Tribal Autonomy in Insular Southeast Asia," in The Anthropology of War, Jonathan Haas, ed., New York, NY: Cambridge University Press, pp. 125-145.

Masamura, Wilfred T., 1977, "Law and Violence: A Cross-Cultural Study," Journal of Anthropological Research 33:388-399.

Otterbein, Keith F., and Charlotte S. Otterbein, 1965, "An Eye for an Eye, a Tooth for a Tooth: A Cross-Cultural Study of Feuding," American Anthropologist 67:1470-1482.

Podolefsky, A., 1984, "Contemporary Warfare in the New Guinea Highlands," Ethnology XXIII(2):73-87.

Pospisil, Leopold, 1968, "Feud," International Encyclopedia of Social Sciences, David L. Sills, ed., New York, NY: Crowell Collier and Macmillan, Inc., 5:389-393.

Ramos, Alcida Rita, 1987, "Reflecting on the Yanomami: Ethnographic Images and the Pursuit of the Exotic," Cultural Anthropology 2:284-304.

Sponsel, Leslie E., 1998, "Yanomami: An Arena of Conflict and Aggression in the Amazon," Aggressive Behavior 24:97-122.

Torre, Angelo, 1994, "Feuding, Factions, and Parties: The Redefinition of Politics in the Imperial Fiefs of Langhe in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries," in History from Crime, Edward Muir and Guido Ruggiero, eds., Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press, pp. 135-169.

BOOKS

Greenberg, James B., 1989, Blood Ties: Life and Violence in Rural Mexico, Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona Press.

Jacoby, Susan, 1976, Wild Justice: The Evolution of Revenge,

Pearce, John, 1994, Days of Darkness: The Feuds of Eastern Kentucky, Lexington, KY: University of Kentucky Press.

Tavris, Carol, 1989, Anger: The Misunderstood Emotion,

Waller, Altina L., 1988, Feud: Hatfields, McCoys, and Social Chnge in Appalachia, 1860-1900, Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press.

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17. Violence in the Media and Entertainment Industries (news, movies, television, video games, photography, art, music, drama, literature, sports, and recreation, etc.)

MAIN POINTS

1. Violence permeates many, if not all aspects, of US society including news, entertainment, and sports; some would even argue that it is systemic.
2. Many argue that displays of violence in these media may even glamorize and celebrate it, and thereby teach children to be violent and to positively value violence as expectable, acceptable, justifiable, and even honorable behavior.
3. However, the extent and ways in which television, movies, video games, and the like stimulate violence remains very controversial.
4. Exposure to violence in the media may contribute to an individual's violent behavior or it may affect nonaggressive but antisocial behavior.
5. The media may direct the viewer's attention to novel forms of violent behavior that they would not otherwise even consider.
6. Blaming the media alone for the epidemic of violence in US society may be politically and psychologically convenient, but may divert attention from much deeper systemic causes including historical, structural, and cultural factors.

QUESTIONS

1. Does violence in the media affect children, juveniles, adults, classes, "races," ethnic groups, and society as a whole?
2. Do music, sports, television, video games, and other particular types of mass media promote violence?
3. Should violence in the media be censored, managed, reduced, or even eliminated completely?
4. Should households, media, and/or the government control violence in the media?
5. When relatively nonviolent and violent cultures are compared do researchers find significant differences in the character of their entertainment such as play and sports?
6. Are there any examples of media, entertainment, sports, and recreation which are nonviolent yet still very attractive?
7. Do sports act as a catharsis or a catalyst for violence among fans?

REQUIRED READING

TEXT: Englander Ch. 5

Felson, Richard B., 1996, "Mass Media Effects on Violent Behavior," Annual Review of Sociology, 22:103-128.

Waddington, David, 1992, "Football Hooliganism," in Contemporary Issues in Public Disorder: A Comparative and Historical Approach, New York, NY: Routledge, pp. 117-139.

CASE

Duclos, Denis, 1998, The Werewolf Complex: America's Fascination with Violence. New York, NY: Berg.

ARTICLES

Centerwall, Brandon, 1997, "Television and Violence," in Violence: From Biology to Society, J.S. Grisolia, et al., eds., New York, NY: Elsevier, pp. 131-139.

Dunning, Eric, Patrick Murphy, and John Williams, 1986, "`Casuals', `Terrace Crews' and `Fighting Firms': Towards a Sociological Explanation of Football Hooligan Behaviour," in The Anthropology of Violence, David Riches, ed., New York, NY: Basil Blackwell, pp. 164-184.

Felson, Richard B., 1996, "Mass Media Effects on Violent Behavior," Annual Review of Sociology 22:103-128.

Geen, Russell G., 1994, "Violence, Observational Effects on Behavior," in Encyclopedia of Human Behavior 4:459-467.

Hage, Jr., James F., 1994, "Media Pervasiveness," Foreign Affairs 73(4):136-144.

Harper, Sue, 1997, "Popular Film, Popular Memory: The Case of the Second World War," War and Memory in the Twentieth Century, Martin Evans and Ken Lunn, ed., New York, NY: Berg, pp. 163-176.

Irwin, A. Roland, and Alan M. Gross, 1995, "Cognitive Tempo, Violent Video Games, and Aggressive Behavior in Young Boys," Journal of Family Violence 10(3):337-350.

King, A., 1995, "Outline of a Practical Theory of Football Violence," Sociology 29(4):635-651.

Kitchen, Martin, 1995, "The Arts and Entertainment in Wartime Germany," Nazi Germany at War, New York, NY: Longman, pp. 260-287.

Marsh, Rosalind J., 1988, "The Arts as Forces in Shaping Cultural Norms Relating to War and Environment," in Cultural Norms, War and the Environment, Arthur H. Westing, ed., New York, NY: Oxford University Press, pp. 121-150.

Marvin, Garry, 1986, "Honour, Integrity and the Problem of Violence in the Spanish Bullfight," in The Anthropology of Violence, David Riches, ed., New York, NY: Basil Blackwell, pp. 118-135

Moeran, Brian, 1986, "The Beauty of Violence: Jidaigeki, Yakuza and `Eroduction' Films in Japanese Cinema," in The Anthropology of Violence, David Riches, ed., New York, NY: Basil Blackwell, 103-117.

Pitt-Rivers, Julian, 1993, "The Spanish Bull Fight and Kindred Activities," Anthropology Today 9:11-15.

Sadkovich, James T., 1996, "The Response of the American Media to Balkan Neo-Nationalism," Genocide After Emotion: The Postemotional Balkan War, New York, NY: Routledge, pp. 113-157.

Sheik, Ali T., 1990, "Not the Whole Truth: Soviet and Western Media Coverage of the Afghan Conflict," Conflict Quarterly X(4):73-92.

Sipes, Richard G., 19783, "War, Sports and Aggression: An Empirical Test of Two Rival Theories," American Anthropologist 75:64-86.

Sluka, Jeffrey A., 1992, "The Politics of Painting: Political Murals in Northern Ireland," in The Paths to Domination, Resistance and Terror, Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, pp. 190-216.

Waddington, David, 1992, "Football Hooliganism," in Contemporary Issues in Public Disorder, David Wadington, New York NY: Routledge, pp. 117-139.

BOOKS

Alloway, Lawrence, 1984, Violent America: The Movies, 1946-1964, New York, NY: Museum of Modern Art. New York, NY: Museum of Modern Art.

Armstrong, Nancy, and Leonard Tennenhouse, eds., 1989, The Violence of Representation: Literature and the History of Violence, New York, NY: Routledge.

Bok, Sissela, 1998, Mayhem: Violence as Public Entertainment, Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.

Buitenhuis, Peter, 1987, The Great War of Words: British, American, and Canadian Propaganda and Fiction 1914-1933, Vancouver, Briths Columbia: University of British Columbia Press.

Camus, Albert, 1991, Between Hell and Reason: Essays from the Resistance Newspaper Combat 1944-1947, Hanover, NH: University Press of New England.

Collins, L.J., 1998, Theatre at War 1914-18, New York, NY: St. Martin's Press.

Darracott, Joseph, 1989, A Cartoon War: World War Two in Cartoons, London, England: Leo Cooper.

Dibbet, Karel, and Bert Higenkamp, 1995, Film and the First World War, Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Amsterdam University Press.

Douglas, Roy, 1992, Between the Wars 1919-1939: The Cartoonists' Vision, New York, NY: Routledge.

Fraser, John, 1974, Violence in the Arts, New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.

Giulianotti, R., N. Bonney, and M. Hepworth, 1994, Football, Violence, and Social Identity, New York, NY: Routledge.

Guenther, Bruce, 1985, States of War: New European and American Paintings, Seattle, WA: Seattle Art Museum.

Herman, E.S., and Noam Chomsky, 1988, Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media, New York, NY: Pantheon.

Holovak, Mike, 1967, Violence Every Sunday: The Story of a Professional Football Coach, New York, NY: Coward-McCann.

Howlett, Jana, and Rod Menghan, 1994, The Violent Muse: Violence and the Artistic Imagination in Europe, 1910-1939, Manchester, England: Manchester University Press.

Isenberg, Michael T., 1981, War on Film: The Cinema and World War II, 1914-1941, Madison, WI: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press.

Kellner, Douglas, 1995, Media Culture, Cultural Studies, and Identity: Politics Between the Modern and Postmodern, New York, NY: Routledge.

Koppes, Clayton R., and Gregory D. Black, 1987, Hollywood Goes to War: How Politics, Profits, and Propaganda Shaped World War II Movies, New York, NY: The Free Press.

Laks, Szymon, 1989, Music of Another World, Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press [Auschwitz orchestra].

Lipstadt, Deborah E., 1986, Beyond Belief: The Press and the Coming Holocaust 1933-45, New York, NY: Free Press.

Prochnau, William, 1995, Once Upon A War: David Halberstam, Neil Sheehan, Peter Arnett- Young War Correspondents and their Early Vietnam Battles, New York, NY: Vintage.

Puppi, Lionello, 1991, Torment in Art: Pain, Violence, and Martyrdom, New York, NY: Rizzoli.

Rawls, Walton, 1988, Wake Up, America! World War I and the American Poster, New York, NY: Abbeville Press Publishers.

Schiff, Hilda, 1995, Holocaust Poetry, New York, NY: St. Martin's Griffin.

Simpson, Marc, 1988, Winslow Homer: Paintings of the Civil War, San Francisco, CA: Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco.

Stevenson, Lauralee Trent, 1998, Confederate Soldiers Artists: Painting the South War, Shippensburg, PA: White Mane Publications.

Sumner, Colin, 1997, Violence, Culture and Censure, New York, NY:
Taiso, Yoshitoshi, 1992, Beauty and Violence: Japanese Prints by Yoshitoshi 1839-1892,

Tobin, James, 1997, Ernie Pyle's War - America's Eyewitnes to World War II, New York, NY: Free Press.

Twitchell, James B., 1981, The Living Dead: A Study of the Vampire in Romantic Literature, Durham, NC: Duke University Press.

Ward, Larry Watne, 1985, The Motion Picture Goes to War: The U.S. Government Film Effort during World War I, Ann Arbor, MI: UMI Research Press.

Wilder, Amos N., 1994, Armageddon Revisited: A World War I Journal, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.

Wolfsfeld, Gadi, 1997, Media and Political Conflict: News from the Middle East, New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.

Yonah, Alexander, and Richard Latter, eds., 1990, Terrorism and the Media: Dilemma for Government, Journalists and the Public, Washington, D.C.: Brassey's.

Yonah, Alexander, and Robert G. Picard, eds., 1991, In the Camera's Eye: News Coverage of Terrorist Events, Washington, D.C.: Brassey's.

 

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18. Classroom, School and Campus Violence

MAIN POINTS

1. Violence among youth is increasing and recognized as a major public health problem.
2. Schools, colleges, and universities are not immune to violence as they are microcosms of city, society, and nation.
3. However, violence on campuses has only begun to be more adequately reported and recognized in recent years, especially with several widely publicized notorious campus crimes (e.g., University of Florida murders) and since the 1990 Student Right to Know Act of the US federal government.
4. At colleges and universities fraternity members are responsible for a significant amount of campus crime, often in connection with rituals of initiation hazing or fraternal solidarity; the frequency of gang rape is probably higher on campuses than elsewhere.
5. Growing bigotry (sexual, racial and ethnic prejudice and hatred), some supposedly protected by freedom of speech, has contributed to increased violence on campuses and exposes the very serious and urgent need for multicultural sensitivity training and other educational programs to promote understanding, harmony, and community.
6. One response to growing campus violence has been a shift in the training, responsibilities, and facilities of campus security forces.
7. Other responses must be treating violence as a public health problem; violence prevention through education; training in mediation techniques and nonviolent conflict resolution skills; a course in violence and nonviolence studies as a core degree requirement; facing the larger community which breeds violence including the entertainment industry and sports; establish the campus as a violence-free zone; recognizing systemic violence within the educational system itself; and, ultimately, even questioning the acceptability and justification of violence.

QUESTIONS

1. What kinds of violence occur in classrooms, schools, and campuses (colleges and universities)?
2. Is violence becoming more frequent and more serious in these contexts?
3. What factors contribute to this violence?
4. Who is responsible--- the individual perpetrators, parents, administrators and teachers, community, government, and/or society? 5. Should subadult criminals be treated as adults in the legal and penal systems?
6. What are the risk factors in students and institutions?
7. Are such institutions inherently violent in their very conceptualization, structure, and functioning?
8. What preventive and security measures can be taken?
9. Can psychological counseling help?
10. Can training in nonviolent conflict resolution help?

REQUIRED READING

Beynon, John, 1989, "A School for Men: An Ethnographic Case Study of Routine Violence in Schooling," in Human Aggression: Naturalistic Approaches, John Archer and Kevin Browne, eds., New York, NY: Routledge, pp. 122-150.

Epp, Juanita Ross, 1996, "Schools, Complicity, and Sources of Violence," in Systemic Violence: How Schools Hurt Children, Washington, D.C.: The Falmer Press, pp. 1-23.

Kopka, Deborah L., 1997, "Overview," in School Violence: A Reference Handbook, Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, pp. 1-34.

ARTICLES

Benyon, John, 1989, "A School for Men: An Ethnographic Case Study of Routine Violence in Schooling," in Human Aggression: Naturalistic Approaches, John Archer and Kevin Browne, eds., New York, NY: Routledge, pp. 122-150.

Carnegie Foundation, 1990, "Campus Life: In Search of Community," Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching Report.

Cohen, Jeffrey H., et al., 1994, "A Primer on School Violence Prevention," Journal of School Health 64(8):309-312.

DiCanio, Margaret, 1993, "Violence Prevention: The Evolution of a Pilot Program for Adolescents," in her The Encyclopedia of Violence, New York, NY: Facts on File, pp. 279-284.

Epp, Juanita Ross, 1996, "Schools, Complicity, and Sources of Violence," in Systemic Violence: How Schools Hurt Children, Juanita Ross Epp and Ailsa M. Watkinson, eds., Washington, D.C.: The Falmer Press, pp. 11-23.

Harris, Ian M., 1988, "The Coalition for Nonviolence in Schools: A Case Study in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, U.S.A.," Peace Research 30(2):62-73.

Hyman, Irwin A., and Jacqueline Clarke, 1991, "Institutional Violence Directed Toward Children: The Case of Corporal Punishment in Schools," in Targets of Violence and Aggression, Ronald Baenninger, ed., New York, NY: North-Holland, pp. 159-210.

Millicent, Lawton, 1994, "Schools Embrace Violence-Prevention Curricula," Education Week 14(10): 1, 10-11.

Olweus, Dan, 1991, "Victimization among School Children," in Targets of Violence and Aggression, Ronald Baenninger, ed., New York, NY: North-Holland, pp. 45-102.

Olweus, Dan, 1992, "Bullying Among Schoolchildren: Intervention and Prevention," in pp. Aggression and Violence Throughout the Life Span, Ray DeV. Peters, Robert J. McMahon, and Vernon L. Quinsey, eds., Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications, pp. 100-125.

Prothrow-Stith, Deborah, 1994, "Building Violence Prevention into the Curriculum," The School Administrator 11.

Schwartz, Eitan D., 1993, "Malignant Memories: Effect of a Shooting in the Workplace on School Personnel's Attitudes," Journal of Interpersonal Violence 8(4):468-485.

BOOKS

Epp, Juanita Ross, and Ailsa M. Watkinson, eds., 1997, Systemic Violence in Education: Promise Broken, Albany, NY: State University of New York.

Freire, P., 1970, Pedagogy of the Oppressed, New York, NY: Herder and Herder.

Goldstein, Arnold P., 1984, School Violence, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Johnson, David W., 1995, Reducing School Violence Through Conflict Resolution, Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Kopka, Deborah L., 1997, School Violence: A Reference Handbook, Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.

Lantieri, Linda, 1996, Waging Peace in Our Schools, Boston, MA: Beacon Press.

Ostrander, Curtis, and Joseph Schwartz, 1994, Crime at College: The Student Guide to Personal Safety, Ithaca, NY: New Strategist Publications.

Quarles, Charles L., 1993, Staying Safe At School, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Shostak, John F., 1986, Schooling the Violent Imagination, New York, NY: Routledge and Kegan Paul.

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19. Violence in the Workplace, Road Rage, etc.

MAIN POINTS

1. Clearly some kinds of workplaces and employees may be more at risk for violence than others, such as prisons and prison guards.
2. However, in the last 15 years in the US an apparently new trend has developed to use violence (assault, single and mass homicide, etc.) as a mean to solve problems in the workplace. This was virtually unheard of prior to 1980.
3. Homicide is now second only to work related accidents as the cause of death in the workplace. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health estimates that about 1,400 people are murdered in the workplace annually in the US.
4. The perpetrators are employees who are disgruntled with some aspects of their job or who bring personal problems or disputes into it, and customers who are dissatisfied with goods or services. 5. The perpetrators are usually males under 35 years of age, act alone, use handguns, and most have psychiatric disorders.
6. Violence in the workplace may be merely symptomatic of more widespread and deeper systemic violence growing in society as a whole.
7. In part this may involve an increasing number of individuals who view violence as a viable solution for any of life's ills.
8. This growing threat to the personal security and welfare of employers and employees in the workplace has created an environment of stress, fear, and anxiety which requires more effective means of employee relations, violence prevention, crisis management, and conflict resolution.

QUESTIONS

1. Is violence in the workplace a new development and on the increase?
1. What kinds of violence occur in the workplace?
2. Is violence more frequent in some kinds of workplaces than others?
3. What kinds of people commit violence in the workplace?
4. What effective preventive, crisis, and conflict management measures are being developed in the workplace?

REQUIRED READING

Feldmann, Theodore B., and Philip W. Johnson, 1996, "Workplace Violence: A New Form of Lethal Aggression," in Lethal Violence 2000: A Sourcebook of Fatal Domestic, Acquaintance and Stranger Aggression, Harold V. Hall, ed., Kamuela, HI: Pacific Institute for the Study of Conflict and Aggression, pp. 311-338.

ARTICLES

Baron, Robert A., and Joel H. Neuman, 1996, "Workplace Violence and Workplace Aggression: Evidence on Their Relative Frequency and Potential Causes," Aggressive Behavior 22(3):163-173.

Duncan, T.S., 1993, "Death in the Office: Workplace Homicides," FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin 64(4):20-25.

Elsayed-Ekhouly, Sayed M., and Richard Buda, 1996, "Organizational Conflict: A Comparative Analysis of Conflict Styles Across Cultures," International Journal of Conflict Management 7(1):71-81.

Layden, Dianne R., 1996, "Violence, the Emotionally Enraged Employee, and the Workplace: Managerial Considerations," in States of Rage: Emotional Eruption, Violence and Social Change, Renee R. Curry and Terry L. Allison, eds., Albany, NY: New York University Press, pp. 35-60.

Lee, Hyun O., and Randall G. Reagan, 1991, "A Cross-Cultural Comparison of Organization Conflict Management," International Journal of Conflict Management 2(3):181-200.

Novaco, Raymond W., 1991, "Aggression on Roadways," in Targets of Violence and Aggression, Ronald Baenninger, ed., New York, NY: North-Holland, pp. 253-326.

Ting-Toomey, Stella, et al., 1991, "Culture, Face Maintenance, and Styles of Handling Conflict: A Study in Five Cultures," International Journal of Conflict Management 2(4):275-296.

BOOKS

Albrect, Steve, 1997, Fear and Violence on the Job: Prevention Solutions for the Dangerous Workplace, Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press.

Alcorn, Seth, 1994, Anger in the Workplace: Understanding the Causes of Aggression and Violence, Westport, CT: Quorum.

Baron, S. Anthony, 1993, Violence in the Workplace: A Guide to Prevention and Management, Ventura, CA: Pathfinder Publishing of California.

Davis, Dennis A., 1997, Threats Pending, Fuses Burning, Managing Workplace Violence, Palo Alto, CA; Davies-Black Publishing.

Hall, H.V., 1987, Violence Prediction: Guidelines for the Forensic Practitioner, Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas.

Kaye, Kenneth, 1994, Workplace Wars and How to End Them, New York, NY: American Management Association.

Labig, Charles E., 1995, Preventing Violence in the Workplace, New York. NY: American Management Association.

Mantell, Michael R., 1994, Ticking Bombs: Defusing Violence in the Workplace, Burr Ridge, IL: Irwin Professional Publications.

Wheeler, Eugene D., and S. Anthony Baron, 1994, Violence in Our Schools, Hospitals, and Public Places, Ventura, CA: Pathfinder Publications of California.

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20. Street and Gang Violence (fights, assassinations, drive by shootings, urban "warfare", street violence, juvenile delinquency)

MAIN POINTS

1. In the US gangs are increasing rapidly in number, geographical distribution, involvement with drugs, amount and lethalness of violence, and their impact on public awareness and concern.
2. Attempts to explain the delinquent gang phenomenon include strain, subculture, control, labeling, and radical theories.
3. To understand gang behavior it is imperative to consider their full context--- historical, economic, social, cultural, political, and legal.
4. Intervention has included programs for value and social transformation, providing alternative opportunities and activities, and deterrence and incarceration, but more comprehensive and holistic approaches are developing.

QUESTIONS

1. Is gang violence increasing?
2. How is gang violence related to juvenile delinquency, crimes, and drugs?
3. Why do gangs exist?
4. What conditions encourage gang behavior?
5. How do gang members view themselves?
6. How can society deal more positively and effectively with gang violence?
7. Can gangs be taught nonviolent conflict management and resolution?
8. Are there any positive functions of gangs for their members?
9. Can gangs contribute positively to society in nonviolent ways? 10. Are gangs microcosms of society?

REQUIRED READING

TEXT: Englander Ch. 8

Goldstein, Arnold P., 1994, "Delinquent Gangs," in Aggressive Behavior: Current Perspectives, L. Rowell Huesmann, ed., New York, NY: Plenum Press, pp. 255-273.

Kennedy, Leslie W., and Stephen W. Baron, 1993, "Routine Activities and a Subculture of Violence: A Study of Violence on the Street," Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 30(1):88-112.

CASE

Wolf, Daniel R., 1991, The Rebels: A Brotherhood of Outlaw Bokers, Buffalo, NY: University of Toronto Press.

ARTICLES

Archer, John, 1994, "Violence Between Men," in Male Violence, John Archer, ed. New York, NY: Routledge, pp. 121-140.

Gibbons, Don C., and Marvin D. Krohn, 1991, "Preventing Delinquency," in their Delinquent Behavior, Don C. Gibbons and Marvin D. Krohn, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, pp. 323-342.

Howard, A., and R.A. Scott, 1981, "The Study of Minority Groups in Complex Societies," in Handbook of Cross-Cultural Human Development, New York, NY: Garland STPM Press.

McCarthy, Barry, 1994, "Warrior Values: A Socio-Historical Survey," in Male Violence, John Archer, ed., New York, NY: Routledge, pp. 105-120.

Moore, J.W., D. Vigil, and R. Garcia, 1983, "Residence and Territoriality in Chicago Street Gangs," Social Problems 31:182-194.

Parker, Robert Nash, 1989, "Poverty, Subculture of Violence, and Type of Homicide," Social Forces 67(4):983-1007.

Sampson, Robert J., 1987, "Urban Black Violence: The Effect of Male Joblessness and Family Disruption," American Journal of Sociology 93:348-382.

Tompson, D.W., and L.A. Jason, 1988, "Street Gangs and Preventive Interventions," Criminal Justice and Behavior 15:323-333.

Trojanowicz, Robert C., and Merry Morash, 1992, "Theories of Delinquency Causation," in their Juvenile Delinquency: Concepts and Control, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, pp. 46-101.

Weisfeld, Glenn, 1994, "Aggression and Dominance in the Social World of Boys," in Male Violence, John Archer, ed., New York, NY: Routledge, pp. 42-69.

Vigil, James Diego, 1983, "Chicano Gangs: One Response to Mexican Urban Adaptation in the Los Angeles Area," Urban Anthropology 12"45-75.

Vigil, James Diego, and John M. Long, 1990, "Etic and Emic Perspectives on Gang Culture: The Chicano Case," in Gangs in America, C. Ronald Huff, ed., Newbury Park, CA: Sage, pp. 55-68.

BOOKS

Brake, Mike, 1985, Comparative Youth Culture, New York, NY: Routledge.

Gardner, S., 1985, Street Gangs, New York, NY: Franklin Watts.

Gibbons, Don C., and Marvin D. Krohn, 1991, Delinquent Behavior, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Glasglow, D.G., 1980, The Black Underclass: Poverty, Unemployment, and Entrapment of Ghetto Youth, San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Goldstein, Arnold P., 1991, Delinquent Gangs: A Psychological Perspective, Champaign, IL: Research Press.

Goldstein, Arnold P., and C. Ronald Huff, eds., 1993, The Gang Intervention Handbook, Champaign, IL: Research Press.

Hagan, John, and Bill McCarthy, 1997, Mean Streets: Youth Crime and Homelessness, New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.

Huff, C.R., ed., 1990, Gangs in America, Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

Kaminer, Wendy, 1995, Its All the Rage: Crime and Culture, Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.

Koren, Dan, 1994, Suburban Gangs: The Affluent Rebels, Richardson, TX: International Focus Press

Landre, Rick, Mike Miller, and Dee Porter, 1997, Gangs- A Handbook for Community Awareness, New York, NY: Facts on File.

Lavigne, Yves, 1996, Hells Angels- Into the Abyss, New York, NY: HarperCollins Publishers.

Lundman, Richard J., 1993, Prevention and Control of Juvenile Delinquency, New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Miller, W.B., 1982, Crime by Youth Gangs and Groups in the United States, Washington, D.C.: National Institute of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention.

Mirande, A., 1987, Gringo Justice, Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame.

Morales, A., 1981, Treatment of Hispanic Gang Members, Los Angeles, CA: University of California Neuropsychiatric Institute.

Needle, J.A., and W.V. Stapleton, 1982, Police Handling of Youth Gangs, Washington, D.C.: National Juvenile Justice Assessment Center.

Rosen, Roger, and Patra McSharry, 1991, Street Gangs: Gaining Turf, Losing Ground, New York, NY: The Rosen Publishing Group, Inc.

Sanders, William B., 1994, Gangbangs and Drive-Bys: Grounded Culture and Juvenile Gang Violence, New York, NY: Aldine de Gruyter.

Scheingold, Stuart A., 1991, The Politics of Street Crime: Criminal Process and Cultural Obsession, Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press.

Shoemaker, Donald J., 1996, Theories of Delinquency: An Examination of Explanations of Delinquent Behavior, New York, NY: Oxford University press.

Siegel, Larry J., and Joseph J. Senna, 1991, Juvenile Delinquency, St. Paul, MN: West Publishing Co.

Simon, David, and Edward Burns, 1997, The Corner: A Year in the Life of an Inner-City Neighborhood, New York, NY: Broadway Books.

Spergel, I.A., et al., 1989, Youth Gangs: Problem and Response, Washington, D.C.: Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention.

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21. Violence and Crimes of Hate (discrimination and hate crime violence including deindividuation and dehumanization with bigotry, prejudice, discrimination, or intolerance related to "race", ethnicity, religion, language, sex, age, handicap, etc.)

MAIN POINTS

1. Violence and crime against others who are targets of hatred simply because they are somehow different are on the increase in the USA and Europe.
2. There are about five to six dozen hate groups within the USA with a combined membership around 200,000, the Ku Klux Klan being the oldest.
3. Typical hate crimes include verbal threats (face-to-face, written or telephoned); physical harassment and assaults with or without weapons; and vandalism and destruction of property.
4. An individual or a group may be targeted by another individual or a group (e.g., racist skinheads, White Aryan Resistance, Christian Identity movement), especially during periods of economic insecurity and political turmoil as scapegoats for frustration, anger, fear, and ignorance.
5. Mere numbers encourages viciousness, probably because a crowd diffuses responsibility and provides anonymity.
6. Depersonalization or deindividualization as well as dehumanization are critical components in the process.
7. Distinguishing and discriminating against "the other" as somehow negative and threatening (in-group vs. out-group) appears to be a common psychological and social experience of humanity, and accordingly one of the most fundamental obstacles to developing a more harmonious, just, nonviolent, and peaceful society.
8. Among the sciences anthropology has great potential because it explicitly and systematically seeks to know, understand, and appreciate "the other" (e.g., cultural relativism) and to disseminate this perspective in publications and classrooms.
9. Education is a major priority, even beginning as early as kindergarten, to teach understanding, appreciation, and sensitivity
in an increasingly diverse society and world.

QUESTIONS

1. Why does hatred exist?
2. How does hatred lead to violence?
3. How are depersonalization, deindividualization, and dehumanization involved in hate crimes?
4. Are hate crimes a serious social problem or simply exaggerated by the media?
5. Are certain groups responsible for promoting hate and related violence?
6. Should special legal penalties be developed and applied to hate crimes?
7. Are society and the world becoming more hateful?
8. How can people become more understanding, tolerant, and appreciative of human diversity including sexual, "racial", ethnic, religious, and other differences?

REQUIRED READING

Berrill, Kevin T., 1992, "Anti-Gay Violence and Victimization in the United States: An Overview," in Hate Crimes: Confronting Violence Against Lesbians and Gay Men, Gregory M. Herek and Kevin T. Berrill, eds., Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications, pp. 19-45.

CASE

Hamm, Marks, 1993, American Skinheads: The Criminology and Control of Hate Crimes, Westport, CT: Praeger.

ARTICLES

Berrill, Kevin T., 1992, "Anti-Gay Violence and Victimization in the United States: An Overview," in Hate Crimes: Confronting Violence Against Lesbians and Gay Men, Gregory M. Herek and Kevin T. Berrill, eds., Newbury Park, CA: Sage, pp. 19-45.

Boyer, L. Bryce, 1986, "On Man's Need to Have Enemies: A Psychoanalytical Perspective," The Journal of Psychoanalytical Anthropology 9(2):101-120.

D-Augelli, Anthony R., 1992, "Lesbian and Gay Male Undergraduates' Experience of Harassment on Campus," Journal of Interpersonal Violence 7(3):383-395.

DiCanio, Margaret, 1993, "Hate Crimes," in her The Encyclopedia of Violence, New York, NY: Facts on File, pp. 120-128.

Herek, Gregory, et al., 1997, "Hate Crime Victimization Among Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Adults: Prevalence, Psychological Correlates, and Methodological Issues," Journal of Interpersonal Violence 12(2):195-215.

Journal of Interpersonal Violence 1990, 5(3), special issue "Violence Against Lesbians and Gay Men: Issues for Research, Practice, and Policy."

Kernberg, Otto F., 1993, "The Psychopathology of Hatred," in Rage, Power, and Aggression, Robert A. Glick and Steven P. Rose, eds., New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, pp. 61-79

Konner, Melvin J., 1993, "Do We Need Enemies? The Origins and Consequences of Rage," in Rage, Power, and Aggression, Robert A. Glick and Steven P. Roose, eds, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, pp. 173-193.

Marion, Nancy E., 1995, "The Federal Response to Crime Victims, 1960-1992," Journal of Interpersonal Violence 10(4):419-436.

Nardi, Peter M., and Ralph Bolton, 1991, "Gay-Bashing: Violence and Aggression Against Gay Men and Lesbians," in Targets of Violence and Aggression, Ronald A. Baenninger, ed., New York, NY: North-Holland, pp. 349-400.

Prentice-Dun, Steven, and Ronald W. Rogers, 1983, "Deindividuation in Aggression," in Aggression: Theoretical and Empirical Reviews, Russell G. Geen and Edward I. Donnestein, eds., New York, NY: Academic Press, Volume 2, pp. 155-171.

BOOKS

Ezekiel, Rafael S., 1995, The Racist Mind: Portraits of Neo-Nazis and Klansmen, New York, NY: Viking.

Hamm, Marks, ed., 1994, Hate Crime: International Perspectives on Causes and Control, Cincinnati, Ohio: Anderson Publishing Co.

Harris, Geoffrey, 1990, The Dark Side of Europe: The Extreme Right Today, Edinburgh, Scotland: Edinburgh University Press.

Herek, Gregory M., and Kevin T. Berrill, eds., 1992, Hate Crimes: Confronting Violence Against Lesbian and Gay Men, Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

Levin, Jack, and Jack McDevitt, 1993, Hate Crimes: The Rising Tide of Bigotry and Bloodshed, New York, NY: Plenum.

Pierce, William, 1985, The Turner Diaries,

Ridgeway, James, 1995, Blood in the Face: The Klu Klux Klan, Aryan Nations, Nazi Skinheads, and the Rise of a New White Culture, New York, NY: Thunder's Mouth Press.

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PART IV - STATE VIOLENCE

 

22. Criminal Violence (police including brutality, justice system, prisons)

MAIN POINTS

1. In the USA violent crime includes forcible rape, robbery with the use or threat of violence, aggravated assault (intentional, unlawful bodily injury with or without a weapon, or an attempt at or threat of such an injury or of death with a deadly weapon), and murder.
2. Prisons are supposed to punish and rehabilitate criminals, and to isolate from society criminals who are violent and dangerous.
3. However, the traditional role and design of prisons is being reconsidered as a result of their limited success in rehabilitation (in the US half of the inmates return after release), and increased crowding and expenses (+$15-40,000/inmate for a total of +$22 billion/year), in part a result of "getting tough on crime."
4. At least for first offenders convicted of nonviolent crimes, possible alternatives to prison include probation, community service, halfway house, and house arrest (with electronic surveillance).
5. More research is needed on the subcultures of prisoners and prison officials to find better ways to reduce the violence among prisoners and between prisoners and officials.

QUESTIONS

1. Under what conditions do societies exist without police and prisons?
2. How do such societies handle serious deviant or antisocial behavior and maintain social order and harmony?
3. When is the use of violence by police unjustified or criminal?
4. Is police brutality a widespread problem?
5. Can police operate without guns and apply nonviolent conflict management and resolution techniques to their advantage?
6. How should society react to criminal violence?
7. Is imprisonment effective?
8. Is imprisonment a form of institutional violence?
9. Is the justice system free of discrimination on the basis of "race", ethnicity, religion, etc.?
10. What kinds of violence occur in prisons?
11. Are there any conditions in which it is acceptable for prison staff treat prisoners violently?
12. Does imprisonment breed further violence in prison and after release?
13. Is anyone too young or too old for imprisonment?
14. Is solitary confinement ever justified?
15. Can prison life be made less violent, more humane, and more constructive?
16. Under what circumstances is prison labor justified?
17. Are there effective alternatives to imprisonment for some types of offenders?
18. Can prison staff and prisoners be usefully trained in nonviolent conflict management and resolution?

REQUIRED READING

TEXT: Gilligan Ch. 6

Reiman, Jeffrey, 1998, "The Marxian Critique of Criminal Justice," in The Rich Get Richer and the Poor Get Prison: Idoelogy, Class, and Criminal Justice, Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon, pp. 197-217.

Scrivner, Ellen, 1994, "Police Brutality," Violence and the Law, Mark Coistanzo and Stuart Oskamp, eds., Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, pp. 181-202.

Shane, Marilyn D., 1996, "Violence," in Encyclopedia of American Prisons, New York, NY: Garland Publishing Co., pp. 471-475.

CASES

Melville, Samuel, 1972, Letters from Attica, New York, NY: William Morrow and Co., Inc.

Rideau, Wilbert, and Ron Wikberg, 1992, Life Sentences: Rage and Survival Behind Bars, New York, NY: Times Books (authors are prisoners at Angloa Louisiana State Penitentiary).

Solzhenitsyn, Alelsandr I., 1985, The Gulag Archipelago, 1918-1956: An Experiment in Literary Investigation, New York, NY: Harper and Row, Publishers.

Timerman, Jacobo, 1988, Prisoner without a Name, Cell without a Number, New York, NY: Vintage.

ARTICLES

Champion, Dean J., 1990, "Comparative Perspectives on Corrections," in Corrections in the United States: A Contemporary Perspective, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, pp. 483-512.

Claster, Daniel S., 1992, "Moral Judgements and Crime: An Overview," in his Bad Guys and Good Guys: Moral Polarization and Crime, Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, pp. 1-30.

Harris, Grant T., and Marnie E. Rice, 1992, "Reducing Violence in Institutions: Maintaining Behavior Change," in Ray DeV. Peters, Robert J. McMahon, and Vernon L. Quinsey, eds., Aggression and Violence Throughout the Life Span, Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications, pp. 263-284.

Larson, Erik, 1994, "The Culture," in his Lethal Passage: How the Travels of a Single Handgun Expose the Roots of America's Gun Crisis, New York, NY: Crown Publishers, Inc., pp. 161-199.

Quinsey, Vernon L., and William D. Walker, 1992, "Dealing with Dangerousness: Community Risk Management Strategies With Violent Offenders," in Aggression and Violence Throughout the Life Span, Ray DeV. Peters, Robert J. McMahon, and Vernon L. Quinsey, eds., Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications, pp. 244-262.

Treacy, Mary Jane, 1996, "Doublebinds: Latin American Women's Prison Memories," Hypatia 11(4):130-145.

BOOKS

Bowker, Lee H., 1980, Prison Victimization, New York, NY: Elsevier.

Camp, G.M., and C.G. Camp, 1985, Prison Gangs: Their Extent, Nature and Impact on Prisons, South Salem, NY: Criminal Justice Institute.

Champion, Dean J., 1990, Corrections in the United States: A Contemporary Perspective, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Claster, Daniel S., 1992, Bad Guys and Good Guys: Moral Polarization and Crime, Wesport, CT: Greenwood Press.

Cleaver, Eldridge, 1972, Soul on Ice, London, UK: Panther.

Costanzo, Mark, and Stuart Oskamp, eds., 1994, Violence and the Law, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Cretney, Antonia, and Gwynn Davis, 1995, Punishing Violence, New York, NY: Routledge.

Davidson, William S., II, et al., 1990, Alternative Treatments for Troubled Youth: The Case of Diversion from the Justice System, New York, NY: Plenum.

Hawkins, Darnell F., ed., 1995, Ethnicity, Race and Crime: Perspectives Across Time and Place, Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.

Jakobson, Michael, 1992, Origins of the Gulag: The Soviet Prison Camp System 1917-1934, Lexington, KY: University of Kentucky Press.

Kerry, Senator John, 1997, The New War: The Web of Crime That Threatens America's Security, New York, NY: Simon and Schuster.

Lester, David, and Bruce L. Danto, 1992, Suicide Behind Bars: Prediction and Prevention, Philadelphia, PA: Charles Press, Publishers.

Liebmann, Marian, 1994, Art Therapy with Offenders, Bristol, PA: Jessica Kingsley Publishers.

Morris, Roger, 1983, The Devil's Butcher Shop: The New Mexican Prison Uprising, Albuquerque, NM: University of New Mexico Press.

National Commission on the Causes and Prevention of Violence, 1969, Violent Crime: Homicide, Assault, Rape, Robbery, New York, NY: George Braziller.

Rosen, Lawrence, 1989, The Anthropology of Justice, New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.

Samaha, Joel, 1994, Criminal Justice, St. Paul, MN: West Publishing Co.

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23. Capital Punishment or Death Penalty

MAIN POINTS

1. Over the past decade an average of at least one country each year has abolished the death penalty; thus, today some 80 countries have eliminated the death penalty in law or in practice.
2. Although capital punishment is still applied in many states in the US, many have abolished it.
3. Capital punishment is viewed by human rights advocates opposed to it as premeditated and cold-blooded murder by the state, a brutalization of the offender and his/her acquaintances, and a gross violation of fundamental human rights.
4. It has been argued that the threat of the death penalty is not an effective deterrent to murder, and that a murderer who is imprisoned for life is effectively prevented from committing another murder in open society.
5. In many countries which still have the death penalty it is applied disproportionately against the poor, "racial" minorities, and ethnic minorities, often as an instrument of political repression.

QUESTIONS

1. Is capital punishment an effective deterrent to crime?
2. Is capital punishment state sanctioned murder?
3. What is the effect of capital punishment on those waiting on death row, those associated with them, and society?
4. Why do some consider capital punishment to be a violation of fundamental human rights?
5. What are the trends toward the abolishment of capital punishment across states within the US and internationally?

REQUIRED READING

Amnesty International, 1989, Why Abolish the Death Penalty?," in When the State Kills... The Death Penalty v. Human Rights, London, UK: Amnesty International, pp. 1-8.

CASES

Aronoff, B.R., 1991, Dead Man Walking: A Matter of Time, Red Bluff, CA: Eagle Publishing Co.

Campbell, W. Reason, 1978, Dead Man Walking: Teaching in a Maximum Security Prison, New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Book Co.

Prejean, Sister Helen, 1993, Dead Man Walking, New York, NY: Vintage.

ARTICLES

Molloy, Patricia, 1997, "Face to Face with the Dead Man: Ethical Responsibility, State-Sanctioned Killing, and Empathetic Impossibility," Alternatives 22(4):467-492.

BOOKS

Abu-Jamal, Mumia, 1996, Live from Death Row, New York, NY: Avon Books.

Aguirre, Adalberto, Jr., and David V. Baker, 1991, Race, Racism, and the Death Penalty in the United States, Berrien Spring, MI: VandeVere Publishing, Ltd.

Baird, Robert M., and Stuart E. Rosenbaum, eds., 1998, Punishment and the Death Penalty: The Current Debate, Amherst, NY: Prometheus.
Bedau, Hugo Adam, 1982, The Death Penalty in America, New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Bessler, John D., 1997, Death in the Dark: Midnight Executions in America, Boston, MA: Northeastern University Press.

Bockle, Franz, and Jacques Pohier, 1979, The Death Penalty and Torture, New York, NY: The Seabury Press.

Light, Ken, and Suzanne Donovan, 1997, Texas Death Row, University, MS: University of Mississippi Press.

Marquart, James W., Sheldon Ekland-Olson, and Jonathan R. Sorensen, 1994, The Rope, The Chair, and the Needle: Capital Punishment in Texas, 1923-1990, Austin, TX: University of Texas Press.

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24. Victimhood, Survival, and Recovery

MAIN POINTS

1. While violence studies and the justice system have tended to focus almost exclusively on the perpetrators, violence also involves the victim and their social network as well as the individuals and institutions that provide them with legal, medical, and other assistance.
2. Many victims of violence, like numerous veterans of the Vietnam War, suffer to some degree from post-traumatic stress syndrome and/or other kinds of stress over the long-term.
3. Even family, friends, and associates who have to live and work with the victim may experience to some degree post-traumatic and other stress.
4. Refugees who seek asylum in other countries are a special category of victim and are often repeatedly victimized including on route and in their country of refuge (e.g., Vietnamese in Hong Kong).
5. In recent years more attention has been given to the condition, concerns, needs, assistance, funding, and rights of the victims of violence, and in some cases, providing asylum or sanctuary.

QUESTIONS

1. What is victimhood?
2. Are some individuals more likely to become victims than others?
3. What support networks are available for victims of violence?
4. Do victims have special rights such as compensation or restitution?
5. Does society have special responsibilities to victims?
6. Are refugees victims?
7. How is victimhood affecting American society, the justice system, the media, and human rights?
8. Aren't we all victims of violence in one way or another to some degree?
9. Our perpetrators of violence ever in any sense also victims?
10. How do other nations and cultures treat victims of violence?
11. Why has victimhood become a special subject for research called victimology?

REQUIRED READING

TEXT: Englander Ch. 12, Epilogue

Sank, Diane, and Brian Sank Firshein, 1991, "Why the Concern for Victims?," in To Be a Victim: Encounters with Crime and Injustice, New York, NY: Plenum Press Insight Books, pp. 3-23.

Walklate, Sandra, 1989, "Key Concepts in Victimology: An Overview," in her Victimology: The Victim and the Criminal Justice Process, Boston, MA: Unwin Hyman, pp. 1-24.

CASE

Neiderbach, Shelley, 1986, Invisible Wounds: Crime Victims Speak, New York, NY: Harrington Park Press.

ARTICLES

Brain, Paul F., 1997, "Emotional and Biological Consequences of Threat and Attack on Victims," in Violence: From Biology to Society, J.S. Grisolia, ed., New York, NY: Elsevier, pp. 115-124.

DiCanio, Margaret, 1993, "Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)," in her The Encyclopedia of Violence, New York, NY: Facts on File, pp. 184-190.

Foa, Edna B., and Barbara O. Rothbaum, 1992, "Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder: Clinical Features and Treatment," in Aggression and Violence Throughout the Life Span, Ray DeV. Peters, Robert J. McMahon, and Vernon L. Quinsey, eds., Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications, pp. 126-154.

Jensen, Gary F., and David Brownfield, 1986, "Gender, Lifestyles, and Victimization: Beyond Routine Activity," Violence and Victims 1(2):85-99.

Marshall, Chris, and Vincent J. Web, 1994, "A Portrait of Crime Victims Who Fight Back," Journal of Interpersonal Violence 9(1):45-74.

Palmer, Stuart, 1973, "Characteristics of Homicide and Suicide Victims in Forty Non-Literate Societies," in Victimology: A New Focus: Volume IV Violence and Its Victims, Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, pp. 43-53.

Sank, Diane, and Brian Sank Firschein, 1991, "Why the Concern for Victims," in To Be a Victim: Encounters with Crime and Injustice, Diane Sank and David I. Caplan, eds., New York, NY: Plenum Press, pp. 3-23.

Smolinski, Annette Kreuz, 1997, "Emotional Effects of Violence in the Family," in Violence: From Biology to Society, J.S. Grisolia, et al., ed., New York, NY: Elsevier, pp. 125-130.

Walklate, Sandfra, 1989, "Key Concepts in Victimology: An Overview," Victimology: The Victim and the Criminal Justice Process, Boston, MA: Unwin Hyman, pp. 1-24.

BOOKS

Flowers, R. Barri, 1994, The Victimization and Exploitation of Women and Children: A Study of Physical, Mental, and Sexual Maltreatment in the United States, Jefferson, NC: McFarland and Co., Inc.

Ginsburg, William L., 1994, Victims Rights: The Complete Guide to Crime Victim Compensation, Clearwater, FL: Sphinx Publishing.

Lansky, Melvin R., 1995, Posttraumatic Nightmares: Psychodynamic Explorations, Hillsdale, NJ: The Analytic Press.

Mawby, R.I., and S. Walklate, 1994, Criminal Victimology: International Perspectives, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Ochberg, Frank M., 1988, Post-Traumatic Therapy and Victims of Violence, New York, NY: Brunner/Mazel, Publishers.

Rock, Paul, 1994, Victimology, Brookfield, VT: Dartmouth Publishing Co.

Sobsey, D., 1994, Violence and Abuse in the Lives of People with Disabilities: The End of Silent Acceptance, Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes.

Warner, Carmen Germaine, and G. Richard Braen, eds., 1982, Management of the Physically and Emotionally Abused: Emergency Assessments, Intervention and Counseling, Norwalk, CT: Appleton-Century-Crofts.

Werkerle, Gerda R., and Carolyn Whitzman, 1995, Safe Cities: Guidelines for Planning, Design, and Management, New York, NY: Van Nostrand Reinhold.

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25. Structural Violence (oppression or repression; denial or abuse of human rights; forced relocation in economic development; social classes or stratification including wealth inequities; hunger and poverty, etc.)

MAIN POINTS

1. Structural violence is hidden or indirect systemic violence which is embedded in the structure of a society and in the relations between societies.
2. Structural violence includes the socioeconomic stratification of society which reflects differential access to resources, services, goods, and power.
3. Structural violence also includes various negative "isms" such as ethnocentrism, racism, sexism, and ageism.
4. Ultimately structural violence involves the denial or abuse of human rights.
5. Structural violence is an obstacle to the realization of the individual's potential (physical, social, mental, spiritual, etc.).
6. Structural and direct violence interact in synergy.
7. What research approaches have been taken to describing and explaining structural violence?
8. What measures have been developed for intervention and policies to deal with structural violence?
9. Reducing structural violence requires effectively resolving of the above factors, thus many researchers think that no less than fundamental systemic change in all aspects of society are imperative.

QUESTIONS

1. What is structural violence?
2. Why did this concept develop in peace studies?
2. How is structural violence related to poverty and racism?
4. How is it related to direct violence?
5. Does structural violence exist between as well as within societies?
6. What are the costs, human and otherwise, of structural violence?
7. How can it be reduced?

REQUIRED READING

TEXT: Gilligan Ch. 8

Eron, Leonard D., Nancy Guerra, and L. Rowell Huesmann, 1997, "Poverty and Violence," in Aggression: Biological, Developmental, and Social Perspectives, Seymour Feshbach and Jolanta Zagrodzka, eds., New York, NY: Plenum, pp. 139-154.

Lawler, Peter, 1995, "Structural Violence," in A Question of Values: Johan Galtung's Peace Research, Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publisher, pp. 67-89.

Scheper-Hughs, Nancy, 1994, "Mother Love," New Internationalist 254:11-14, 27-28.

CASES

Jesus, Carolina Maria de, 1962, Child of the Dark: The Diary of Carolina Maria de Jesus, New York, NY: New American Library.

Lewis, Oscar, 1961, Children of Sanchez: Autobiography of a Mexican Family, New York, NY: Random House.

Stringer, Lee, 1998, Grand Central Winter: Life on the Streets, New York, NY: Random House.

ARTICLES

Hawkins, Darnell F., 1997, "Building Peace in the Inner Cities," Violence: From Biology to Society, J.S. Grisolia, et al., eds., New York, NY: Elsevier, pp. 161-169.

Mazrui, Ali, 1994, "Global Apartheid: Structural and Overt," Alternatives 19(2): 185-193.

Reiman, Jeffrey, 1998, "The Marxian Critique of Criminal Justice," in The Rich Get Richer and the Poor Get Prison: Ideology, Class, and Criminal Justice, Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon, pp. 197-217.

Robinson, Thomas D., and Bruce London, 1991, "Dependency, Inequality, and Political Violence: A Cross-National Analysis," Journal of Political and Military Sociology 19(1):119-156.

Web, Keith, 1986, "Structural Violence and the Definition of Conflict," in World Encyclopedia of Peace, Ervin Laszlo and Jong Youl Yoo, eds., New York, NY: Pergamon Press, pp. 431-434.

Williams, Lloyd C., 1994, "A Perspective on Organizational Violence," in his Organizational Violence: Creating a Prescription for Change, Westport, CT: Quorum Books, pp. 3-18.

BOOKS

Armstrong, Louise, 1995, Of `Slut' and `Bastards': A Feminist Decodes the Child Welfare Debate, Monroe, ME: Common Courage Press.

Black, Maggie, 1992, A Cause for Our Times: Oxfam the First 50 Years, New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Boyer, Paul, and Stephen Nissenbaum, 1974, Salem Possessed: The Social Origins of Witchcraft, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Damos, John Putnam, 1982, Entertaining Satan: Witchcraft and the Culture of Early New England, New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Fanon, Frantz, 1968, The Wretched of the Earth, New York, NY: Grove.

The Hunger Project, 1985, Ending Hunger: An Idea Whose Time Has Come, New York, NY: Praeger.

Reiman, Jeffrey H., 1979, The Rich Get Richer and the Poor Get Prison: Ideology, Class, and Criminal Justice, New York, NY: John Wiley and Sons.

Rice, M., et al., 1989, Violence in Institutions: Understanding, Prevention and Control, Toronto, Canada: Higrefe and Huber.

Rosenberg, TIna, 1992, Children of Cain: Violence and the Violent in Latin America, New York, NY: Penguin.

Roszak, Theodore, 1973, The Making of a Counter Culture: Reflections on the Technocratic Society and Its Youthful Opposition, London, UK: Faber and Faber.

Scheper-Hughes, Nancy, 1992, Death without Weeping: The Violence of Everyday Life in Brazil, Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

Stewart, Charles T., Jr., 1998, Inequality and Equity: Economics of Greed, Politics of Envy, Ethics of Equality, Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.

Whitcomb, Roger S., 1998, The Cold War In Retrospect, Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers.

Williams, Lloyd D., 1994, Organizational Violence: Creating a Perspective for Change, Westport, CT: Quorum Books.

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26. Civil Violence (urban riots, etc.)

MAIN POINTS

1. Civil violence includes a variety of different types of violence at the intergroup level, usually employed by sectors of the public against the central government, its agents, symbols, etc. (e.g., LA riots, Tiannanmen, cf. KKK).
2. Examples of the variety of civil violence include racist lynchings, riots, insurrections, rebellions, revolutions, suicide bombers, terrorism, guerrilla warfare, civil war, political assassination, and coups d'etat.
3. Civil violence usually triggers violent responses by police and/or military, and a synergy can develop leading to protracted low-intensity conflict for years or even decades (e.g., Ireland).
(See next topic on political and state violence).
4. Civil violence may erupt in response to structural violence including persistent violations by the government of human rights (e.g., Palestinian suicide bombers in Israel).
5. Civil violence may also erupt between factions of the same religious or other body (e.g., Algeria, Sikhs in India).
6. Outside intervention by the USA, UN, or other foreign powers may reduce or increase civil violence (e.g., Haiti, Somalia).

QUESTIONS

1. What is civil violence?
2. Is civil violence absent in some kinds of societies?
3. What are the conditions and causes of civil violence?
4. How does civil violence relate to other forms of violence?
5. What are the consequences of civil violence?
6. What policies and intervention measures do governments develop to control and eliminate civil violence?
7. Are there nonviolent alternatives for reducing and even eliminating civil violence?

REQUIRED READING

Bowen, Don R., and Louis H. Masotti, 1968, "Civil Violence: A Theoretical Overview," in Riots and Rebellion: Civil Violence in the Urban Community, Louis H. Masotti and Don R. Bowen, eds., Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, pp.11-31.

Lewis, William H., 1996, "Algeria at 35: The Politics of Violence," The Washington Quarterly 19(3):3-18.

ARTICLES

Benyon, John, and John Solomos, 1987, "The Roots of Urban Unrest," in their The Roots of Urban Unrest, New York, NY: Pergamon, pp. 181-195.

BOOKS

Benyon, John, and John Solomos, eds., 1987, The Roots of Urban Unrest, New York, NY: Pergamon.

Button, James W., 19 , Black Violence: Political Impact of the 1960s Riots, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Freire, Paulo, 1971, Pedagogy of the Oppressed, New York, NY: Herder and Herder.

Masotti, Louis H., and Don R. Bowen, 1968, Riots and Rebellion: Civil Violence in the Urban Community, Berverly Hills, CA: Sage.

Rule, James B., 1988, Theories of Civil Violence, Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

Waddington, David, 1992, Contemporary Issues in Public Disorder: A Comparative and Historical Approach, New York, NY: Routledge.

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27. Political and State Violence (assassination, death squads, massacres, genocide, death camps, torture, terrorism, xenophobia, refugees, as well as civil violence)

MAIN POINTS

1. State or central governments in "civilized" societies attempt to control the population and maintain order within their borders (internal security) by various means which may include police and military use of force, torture, terrorism, killing, extrajudicial executions, death squads, genocide, etc. (e.g., Guatemala)
2. Segments of the population may resist such measures through violent and/or nonviolent means (e.g. overthrow of Marcos regime in the Philippines).
3. Torture is the deliberate infliction of severe pain or discomfort on an individual for information, incrimination, indoctrination, intimidation, and isolation.
4. Researchers trying to understand systematic torture by state agencies against citizens have developed at least four approaches: the humanist, economic developmentalist, state terrorist, and Foucaultian perspectives.

QUESTIONS

1. What are some examples of political and state violence?
2. Why is the state supposed to have a monopoly on violence?
3. Under what conditions if any is political and state violence appropriate (ethically, morally, legally, politically)?
4. Are there any effective nonviolent alternatives to political and state violence?
5. How can political and state violence be reduced and eliminated?

REQUIRED READING

TEXT: Nordstrom and Robben pp. 62-79, 81-103, 105-127, 254-259, 261-274.

Merkl, Peter H., 1986, "Approaches to the Study of Political Violence," Political Violence and Terror: Motifs and Motivations, Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, pp. 19-59.

Millett, Kate, 1994, "State Torture and Religion, The Torture of Children," in her The Politics of Cruelty: An Essay on the Literature of Political Imprisonment, New York, NY: W.W. Norton & Co., pp. 280-295.

Rejali, Darius M., 1994, "How Not to Talk About Torture," in his Torture and Modernity: Self, Society, and State in Modern Iran, Boulder, CO: Westview Press, pp. 160-176.

CASES

Amnesty International, 1993, Getting Away with Murder: Political Killings and `Disappearances' in the 1990s, London, England: Amnesty International.

McDaniel, Judith, 1987, Sanctuary: A Journey, Ithaca, NY: Firebrand Books.

Montejo, Victor, 1987, Testimony: Death of a Guatemalan Village, Willimantic, CT: Curbstone Press.

Towell, Larry, 1994, House on Ninth Street: Interviews and Photographs from Guatemala, Dunvegan, Ontario: Cormorant Books, Inc.

ARTICLES

Andersen, Martin Edwin, 1994, "Chiapis, Indigenous Rights, and the Coming of Fourth World Revolution," SAIS Review XIV(2):141-157.

Bouvard, Marguerite Guzman, 1994, "The Mothers of the Plaza de Mayo," Revolutionizing Motherhood: The Mothers of the Plaza de Mayo, Margauerite Guzman Bouvard, Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources, Inc., pp. 1-17.

Crelinsten, Ronald D., 1995, "In Their Own Words: The World of the Torturer," in The Politics of Pain: Torturers and Their Masters, Ronald D. Crelinsten and Alex P. Schmid, eds., Boulder, CO: Westview Press, pp. 35-64.

Gardner, Hall, 1990, "China and the World After Tianamen Square," SAIS Review 10(1):133-147.

Goldstone, J.A., 1982, "The Comparative and Historical Study of Revolutions," Annual Review of Sociology 8:187-207.

Gong, Gerrit W., 1990, "Tianamen: Causes and Consequences," The Washington Quarterly 13(1):79-95.

Hale, Charles R., 1997, "Consciousness, Violence, and the Politics of Memory in Guatemala," Current Anthropology 38(5):817-838.

Hashim, Ahmed, 1995, "The Crisis of the Iranian State," Adelphi Paper 296.

Hawes, Gary, 1990, "Theories of Peasant Revolution: A Critique and Contribution from the Philippines," World Politics XLII(2):261-298.

Kohli, Atul, et al., 1995, "The Role of Theory in Comparative Politics," World Politics 48:1-49.

International Institute for Strategic Studies, 1994, "The End of Apartheid in South Africa," Strategic Survey 1993-1994, pp. 214-223.

Nagengast, Carole, 1994, "Violence, Terror, and the Crisis of the State," Annual Review of Anthropology 23:109-136.

Paolantonio, Mario D., 1997, "Argentina After the "Dirty War": reading the Limits of National Reconciliation," Alternatives 22(4):433-465.

Reding, Andrew, 1994, "Chiapas Is Mexico: The Imperative of Political Reform," World Policy Journal XI(1):11-25.

Scobell, Andrew, 1992, "Why the People's Army Fired on the People: The Chinese Military and Tiananmen," Armed Forces and Society 18(2):193-213.

Service, Elman R., 1985, "The Origins of Government [conflict and integration theories]," in his A Century of Controversy: Ethnological Issues from 1860 to 1960, New York, NY: Academic Press, Inc., pp.173-199.

Stone, Lawrence, 1971, "Theories of Revolution," in Why Revolution? Theories and Analyses, Clifford T. Paynton and Robert Blackey, eds., Rochester, VT: Schenkman Books, Inc., pp. 263-279.

Suarez-Orozco, Marcelo, 1992, "A Grammar of Terror: Psychocultural Responses to State Terrorism in Dirty War and Post-Dirty War Argentina," in The Paths to Domination, Resistance and Terror, Carolyn Nordstrom and JoAnn Martin, eds., Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, pp. 219-259.

Suedfeld, Peter, 1990, "Torture: A Brief Overview," in Psychology and Torture, Peter Suedfeld, ed., New York, NY: Hemisphere Publishing Corporation, pp. 1-11.

Walt, Stephen M., 1992, "Revolution and War," World Politics 44(3):321-368.

Weede, Erich, and Edward N. Muller, 1998, "Rebellion, Violence, and Revolution: A Rational Choice Perspective," Journal of Peace Research 35(1):43-59.

BOOKS

Amnesty International, 1992, Human Rights Violations Against Indigenous Peoples of the Americas, New York, NY: Amnesty International.

Bouvard, Marguerite Guzman, 1994, Revolutionizing Motherhood: The Mothers of the Plaza de Mayo, Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources, Inc.

Budiardjo, Carmel, and Liem Soei Liong, 1984, The War Against East Timor, London, UK: Zed Books.

Carmack, Robert, 1988, Harvest of Violence: The Maya Indians and the Guatemalan Crisis, Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press.

Comaroff, Jean, 1985, Body of Power, Spirit of Resistance: The Culture and History of the South African People, Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.

Crelinsten, Ronald D., and Alex P. Schmid, eds., 1995, The Politics of Pain: Torturers and Their Masters, Boulder, CO: Westview Press.

Debroey, Steven, 1990, South Africa: Under the Curse of Apartheid, Lanham, MD: University Press of America.

Douglass, Frederick, 1982, Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave, Written by Himself (Houston A. Baker, Jr., ed.), New York, NY: Viking Penguin.

Falla, Ricardo, 1994, Massacres in the Jungle: Ixcan, Guatemala (1975-1982), Boulder, CO: Westview Press.

Fisher, Jo, 1989, Mothers of the Disappeared, London, UK: Zed Books.

Giddens, Anthony, 1987, The Nation-State and Violence, Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

Goldberg, David Theo, ed., 1990, Anatomy of Racism, Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press.

Goldstone, Jack A., 1986, Revolutions: Theoretical, Comparative, and Historical Studies, New York, NY: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich Publishers.

Graziano, Frank, 1992, Divine Violence: Spectacle, Psychosexuality, and Radical Christianity in the Argentine "Dirty War", Boulder, CO: Westview Press.

Gordon, Neve, and Ruchama Marton, eds., 1995, Torture: Human Rights, Medical Ethics and the Case of Israel, Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Zed Books.

Haines, David W., ed., 1996, Refugees in America in the 1990s, Westport, CT: Greenwood Press (includes annotated bibliography and documentary film review).

Hicks, George, ed., 1990, The Broken Mirror: China After Tianamen, Harlow, Essex, UK: Longman.

Klare, M.T., and Cynthia Arnson, 1981, Supplying Repression: U.S. Support for Authoritarian Regimes Abroad, Washington, D.C.: Institute for Policy Studies.

Manz, Beatriz, 1988, Refugees of a Hidden War: The Aftermath of Counterinsurgency in Guatemala, Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.

Mellibovsky, Matilde, 1997, Circle of Love Over Death: Testimonies of the Mothers of the Plaza de Mayo, Willimantic, FT: Curbstone Press.

Menchu, Rigoberta, 1983, I, Rigoberta Menchu: An Indian Woman in Guatemala, Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.

Mermelstein, David, ed., 1987, The Anti-Apartheid Reader: The Struggle Against White Racist Rule in South Africa, New York, NY: Grove Press.

Miserez, Diana, ed., 1987, Refugees- The Trauma of Exile: The Humanitarian Role of the Red Cross-Red Crescent, Boston, MA: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers.

Montagu, M.F. Ashley, 1997, Man's Most Dangerous Myth: The Fallacy of Race, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Mu, Yi, and M.V. Thompson, 1990, Crisis at Tiananmen: Reform and Reality in Modern China, San Francisco, CA: China Books and Periodicals.

Neterowicz, E.M., 1989, The Tragedy of Tibet, Washington, D.C.: Council for Social and Economic Studies.

Palumbo, Michael, 1990, Imperial Israel: The History of the Occupation of the West Bank and Gaza, London, UK: Bloomsbury.

Patterson, Orlando, 1982, Slavery and Social Death: A Comparative Study, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Rich, Paul B., and Richard Stubbs, eds., 1997, The Counter-Insurgent State: Guerrilla Warfare and State Building in the Twentieth Century, New York, NY: St. Martin's Press.

Simmie, Scott, and Robert Nixon, 1989, Tiananmen Square, Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press.

Taylor, J.G., 1991, Indonesia's Forgotten War: The Hidden History of Wast Timor, London, UK: Zed Books.

Wu, Harry, and George Vecsey, 1996, Troublemaker: One Man's Crusade Against China's Cruelty, New York, NY: Ballantine Books.

Zellner, Harold, ed., 1974, Assassination, Cambridge, MA: Schenkman Publishing Co. (Issues in Contemporary Ethics).

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28. Terrorism

MAIN POINTS

1. Terrorism is the application of violence, or the threat of violence, to intimidate and manipulate individuals, society, or government for political ends.
2. Terrorism may be found at many levels from the home (e.g., spousal abuse) to the community to a society (.e.g, Unabomber) to the international arena (e.g., attacks or bombing of US airplanes like PanAm 103 and embassies as recently in Tanzania and Kenya).
3. Since the 1980s terrorism, especially by extremists, has become an increasingly important aspect of civil violence, insurgencies, and interstate wars in Europe, Asia, and Latin America as well as the Middle East, and may threaten to destabilize governments and escalate conflicts, even though its magnitude has been exaggerated in comparison to other forms of violence (e.g., Sri Lanka).
4. The rise of terrorism is related to ready access to automatic weapons, explosives, and information about bomb manufacture as well as to persistent structural violence, human rights violations, etc.

QUESTIONS

1. What is terrorism?
2. Is terrorism ever justified?
3. Is domestic and urban terrorism a growing threat in the U.S.A and elsewhere?
4. Which groups may be terrorist threats?
5. Do anti-terrorism measures endanger civil and political rights?
REQUIRED READING

TEXT: Nordstrom and Robben pp. 25-41, 206-222.

Albin, Cecilia, 1989, "The Politics of Terrorism: A Contemporary Survey," in The Politics of Terrorism: Terror as a State and Revolutionary Strategy, Barry Rubin, ed., Washington, D.C.: Foreign Policy Institute, School of Advanced International Studies, The Johns Hopkins University, pp. 183-234.

Cordes, B., 1987, "Euroterrorists Talk about Themselves: A Look at the Literature," in Contemporary Research on Terrorism, Paul Wilkinson and Alasdair M. Stewrat, eds., Aberdeen, Scotland: Aberdeen University Press, pp. 318-336.

CASE

Melman, Yossi, 1986, The Master Terrorist: The True Story of Abu-Nidal, New York, NY: Adama Books.

Sudoplatov, Pavel, and Anatoli Sudoplatov, 1995, Special Tasks: The Memoirs of an Unwanted Witness, A Soviet Spymaster, Boston, MA: Little, Brown, and Co.

ARTICLES

Ardanza, Jose Antonio, 1997, "Nonviolent Solutions for Nationalist Conflicts in the Basque Country," in Violence: From Biology to Society, J.S. Grisolia, et al., eds., New York, NY: Elsevier, pp. 211-218.

Carr, Caleh, 1996/1997, "Terrorism as Warfare: The Lessons of Military History," World Policy Journal XIII(4):1-12.

Chaliand, Gerard, 1987, "Psychological Warfare," in his Terrorism: From Popular Struggle to Media Spectacle, Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Saqi Books, pp. 105-113.

Crenshaw, Martha, 1996, "Why Violence is Rejected or Renounced: A Case Study of Oppositional Terrorism," in A Natural History of Peace, Thomas Gregor, ed., Nashville, TN: Vanderbilt University Press, pp. 249-272.

Doggett, Martha, 1993, Death Foretold: The Jesuit Murders in El Salvador, Washington, D.C.: Lawyers Committee for Human Rights
and Georgetown University Press.

Elzo, Francisco Javier, 1997, "The Problem of Violence in the Basque Country," in Violence: From Biology to Society, J.S. Grisoloia, et al., eds., New York, NY: Elsevier, pp. 203-210.

Hussain, Asaf, 1988, "Ideologies of Islamic Confrontation," in his Political Terrorism and the State in the Middle East, New York, NY: Mansell Publishing Ltd., pp. 75-103.

Keenan, John ., 1991, "Terrorism-- Wave of the Future: A Strategic Management Study and Evaluation," Futures Research Quarterly 7(2):5-25.

Laqueur, Walter, 1996, "Postmodern Terrorism," Foreign Affairs 75(5):1-36.

Musitu, Gonzalo, 1997, "A Psychosocial Approach to Terrorism," in Violence: From Biology to Society, J.S. Grisolia, et al, eds., New York, NY: Elsevier, pp. 197-202.

Netanyahu, Benjamin, 1991, "Terrorism: An Overview," Global Affairs VI(1):74-86.

Stavis, Benedict, 1993, "Decay, Conflict Resolution, and Institutions at Tiananmen Square," Conflict Quarterly XIII(1):48-67.

Takooshian, Harold, and William M. Verdi, 1995, "Assessment of Attitudes toward Terrorism," in Violence and the Prevention of Violence, Leonore Loeb Adler and Florence L. Denmark, eds., Westport, CT: Praeger, pp. 33-46.

BOOKS

Antokol, Norman, Mary Nudell, 1990, No One A Neutral: Political Hostage-Taking in the Modern World, Medina, OH: Alpha Publications of Ohio.

Arnold, Terrell E., 1988, The Violence Forumla: Why People Lend Sympathy and Support to Terrorism, Lexington, MA: Lexington Books.

Catanzaro, Raimondo, ed., 1991, The Red Brigades and Left-Wing Terrorism in Italy, New York, NY: St. Martin's Press.

Chaliand, Gerard, 1987, Terrorism: From Popular Struggle to Media Spectacle, Atlanic Highlands, NJ: Saqi Books.

Clutterbuck, Richard, 1994, Terrorism in an Unstable World, New York, NY: Routledge.

Hamm Mark S., 1997, Apocalypse in Oklahoma: Waco and Ruby Ridge Revenged, Boston, MA: northeastern University Press.

Hanle, Donald J., 1989, Terrorism: The Newest Face of Warfare, Washington, D.C.: Pergamon-Brassey's.

Hussain, Asaf, 1988, Political Terrorism and the State in the Middle East, New York, NY: Mansell Publishing Ltd.

Jenkins, Brian M., 1985, Terrorism and Personal Protection, Boston, MA: Butterworth Publishers.

Netanyahu, Benjamin, 1995, Fighting Terrorism: How Democracies Can Defeat Domestic and International Terrorists, New York , NY: Farrar Straus Giroux.

O'Day, Alan, ed., 1995, Terrorism's Laboratory: The Case of Northern Ireland, Brookfield, VT: Dartmouth.

Poole, Deborah, and Gerardo Renique, 1992, Peru: Time of Fear, London, England: Latin American Bureau.

Rajali, Darius M., 1994, Torture and Modernity: Self, Society and State in Modern Iran, Boulder, CO: Westview.

Rubin, Barry, ed., 1990, The Politics of Counter-Terrorism: The Ordeal of Democratic States, Washington, D.C.: The Johns Hopkins Foreign Policy Institute.

Schmid, Alex P., and Janny de Graaf, 1982, Violence as Communication: Insurgent Terrorism and the Western News Media, Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.

Stohl, Michael, ed., 1983, The Politics of Terrorism, New York, NY: Marcel Dekker, Inc.

Taylor, Maxwell, 1991, The Fanatics: A Behavioural Approach to Political Violence, New York, NY: Brassey's.

Waugh, William L., Jr., 1990, Terrorism and Emergency Management: Policy and Administration, New York, NY: Marcel Dekker, Inc.

Zulaika, Joseba, and William A. Douglas, 1996, Terror and Taboo: The Follies, Fables, and Faces of Terrorism, New York, NY: Routledge.

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PART V - INTERNATIONAL VIOLENCE

 

29. History of Ideas about War and Peace

MAIN POINTS

1. Ideas about war and peace have been debated since the beginning of Western intellectual history with the philosophers of ancient Greek and Roman times, and many of the ideas are remarkably persistent.
2. Moreover, ideas may have practical consequences when they guide actions.
3. Among the important thinkers on war are Aristotle, Plato, Hobbes, Locke, Hume, Ferguson, Rousseau, Malthus, Darwin, Spencer, Bagehot, Kropotkin, Kant, Machiavelli, Marx, Engels, Freud, Einstein, Tolstoy, Lorenz, Wright, Richardson, Mead, Montagu, and Wilson.
4. However, Carl von Clausewitz is often viewed as the most important thinker about war in recent centuries, and his ideas provides a convenient and useful starting point to consider the intellectual history of the subject. While there are critics, many scholars believe that the essential ideas of von Clausewitz have yet to be superseded.

QUESTIONS

1. What are the pivotal ideas about war and peace in the history of Western civilization and American society?
2. How have they changed through time and what factors have influenced these changes?
3. What have been the practical consequences of these ideas for war and peace?
4. What new ideas are emerging for the next century?

REQUIRED READING

Betts, Richard K., 1997, "Should Strategic Studies Survive?," World Politics 50(1):7-33.

Clark, Mark T., 1998, "The Continuing Relevance of Clausewitz," in Strategic Review XXVI(1):54-61.

Clausewitz, Carl von, 1976 (1832), "What is War?," in Carl von Clausewitz On War, Michael Howard and Peter Paret, eds., Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, pp. 75-89.

Dawson, Doyne, 1996, "The Origins of War: Biological and Anthropological Theories," History and Theory: Studies in the Philosophy of History 35(1):1-28.

ARTICLES

Davis, Christopher Mark, 1996, "War and Peace in a Multipolar World: A Critique of Quincy Wright's Institutional Analysis of the Interwar International System," Journal of Strategic Studies 19(1):31-73.

Mead, Margaret, 1964, "Warfare: It's Only an Invention, Not a Biological Necessity," in her Anthropology: A Human Science, Princeton, NJ: Van Nostrand, pp. 126-133.

BOOKS

Airaksinen, Timo, and Martin A. Bertman, eds., 1989, Hobbes: War Among Nations, Brookfield, VT: Avebury.

Bassford, Christopher, 1994, Clausewitz in English: The Reception of Clausewitz in Britain and America 1815-1945, New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Bohman, James, and Matthias Lutz-Bachman, eds., 1997, Perpetual Peace: Essays on Kant's Cosmopolitan Ideal, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Bramson, Leon, and George W. Goethals, eds., 1968, War: Studies from Psychology, Sociology, Anthropology, New York, NY: Basic Books, Inc., Publishers (reprints classic essays including by William James, Sigmund Freud, William Graham Sumner, Margaret Mead, and Herbert Spencer).

Engels, Friedrich, 1956 (1850), The Peasant Wars in Germany, Moscow, Russia: Progress.

Gallie, W.B., 1979, Philosophers of Peace and War: Kant, Clausewitz, Marx, Engels and Tolstoy, Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Howard, Michael, and Peter Paret, eds., 1976, Carl von Clausewitz On War (1832), Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Lawler, Peter, 1995, A Question of Values: Johan Galtung's Peace Research, Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner.

Machiavelli, Niccolo, 1990 (1521), The Art of War, New York, NY: Da Capo Press, Inc.

Roosevelt, Grace G., 1990, Reading Rousseau in the Nuclear Age, Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press.

Sun Tzu (Ralph D. Sawyer), 1994, The Art of War, Boulder, CO: Westview Press.

Wright, Quincy, 1970, A Study of War, Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.

Zampaglione, Gerardo, 1973, The Idea of Peace in Antiquity, Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press.

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30. Overview of War

MAIN POINTS

1. War may be defined so broadly as to be a universal throughout human prehistory and cross-culturally, or so narrowly as to be a relatively restricted phenomena in human history largely coincident with the evolution of the state (centralized governments in complex societies). Definitions may reflect ideological, political, and theoretical biases.
2. However, in essence, war is generally considered to be organized killing on a large scale involving at least two opposed groups of people in combat for political purposes.
3. Yet the range of violence encompassed by this definition is so varied and variable across cultures and through time as to make the application of the term almost meaningless and requiring detailed description of particular cases and their contexts instead.
4. Thus the classification employed here is very loose and flexible: internal (civil, ethnic-religious) war, and external (colonial, international, multinational, and global) war.
5. Progress in understanding war depends in part on more refined
classifications of types of war and historic, cross-cultural, and cross-national comparisons with each type.
6. It is simplistic, reductionistic, misleading, and confusing to try to explain "the origin of war" as if only one causal factor were involved and the abstract category of war had any substantive meaning.
7. In recent decades low-intensity conflicts have increased to become the main variety of warfare.

QUESTIONS

1. In what ways has war been defined?
2. What ideological, political, and theoretical biases do different definitions relfect?
3. Can different types of war be identified and classified?
4. What particular patterns and processes do historical, cross-cultural, and cross-national comparisons within a type reveal?
5. Do different types of war reflect different conditions, causes, functions, and consequences?
6. Is it simplistic, misleading, and confusing to try to the origin of war?
7. Are there societies or cultures in which war is absent or rare? If so, how might this be explained?
8. Are there nonviolent and peaceful alternatives for major crisis or conflict resolution instead of war?

REQUIRED READING

TEXT: Glossop Chs. I-VI

ARTICLES

Carlton, Eric, 1990, "Perceptions of the Enemies," in his War and Ideology, Savage, ND: Barnes and Noble, pp.

Choucri, Nazli, and Robert C. North, 1987, "Roots of War: The Master Variables," in The Quest for Peace, Raimo Vayrynen, ed., Newbury Park, CA: Sage, pp. 204-216.

Clausewitz, Carl von, 1976, "What Is War?," in Carl von Clausewitz On War, Michael Howard and Peter Paret, eds., Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, pp. 75-89.

Gantzel, Klaus Jurgen, 1997, "War in the Post-World War II World: Some Empirical Trends and a Theoretical Approach," in War and Ethnicity: Global Connections and Local Violence, David Turton, ed., Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press, pp. 123-144.

Greenhouse, Carol J., 1987, "Cultural Perspectives on War," in The Quest for Peace: Transcending Collective Violence and War among Societies, Cultures and States, Raimo Vayrynen, et al., eds., Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, pp. 32-47.

Journal of Conflict Resolution 1998, 42(3), special issue "Opening Up the Black Box of War: Politics and the Conduct of War."

Kurtz, Lester R., and Jennifer E. Turpin, 1988, "The Social Psychology of Warfare," in The Nuclear Cage: A Sociology of the Arms Race, Lester R. Kurtz, ed., Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, pp. 77-89.

Levy, Jack S., 1998, "The Causes of War: Theoretical Progress and Problems," Annual Review of Political Science 1: .

Lowenhard, Percy, 1991, "Is War Inevitable?," International Journal on World Peace VIII(1):13-33.

Nieburg, Hal, 1989, "Problems of War and Peace Are Inseparable," in Peace: Meanings, Politics, Strategies, Linda Rennie Forcey, ed., Westport, CT: Praeger, pp. 27-37.

Parker, Geoffrey, 1995, "Introduction: The Western Way of War," in his The Cambridge Illustrated History of Warfare: The Triumph of the West, New York, NY: Cambridge University Press, pp. 2-9.

Secrest, Donald, Gregory G. Brunk, and Howard Tamashiro, 1991, "American Elite Views on the Conduct of War," Journal of Political and Military Sociology 19(2):195-216.

Sollenberg, Margareta, and Peter Wallensteen, 1996, "Major Armed Conflicts," in SIPRI Yearbook 1996: Armaments, Disarmament and International Security, New York, NY: Oxford University Press (for Stockholm International Peace Research Institute), pp. 15-30.

BOOKS

Brogan, Patrick, 1992, World Conflicts- Why and Where They Are Happening, London, England: Bloomsbury Publishing Co.

Carlton, Eric, 1990, War and Ideology, Savage, MD: Barnes and Noble Books.

Dunnigan, James F., and Austin Bay, 1996, A Quick and Dirty Guide to War: Briefings on Present and Potential Wars, New York, NY: William Morrow and Co., Inc.

Falk, Richard A., and Samuel S. Kim, eds., 1980, The War System: An Interdisciplinary Approach, Boulder, CO: Westview Press.

Fussell, Paul, 1989, Wartime, New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Gelven, Michael, 1994, War and Existence: A Philosophical Inquiry, University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University Press.

Glossop, Ronald J., 1994, Confronting War: An Examination of Humanity's Most Pressing Problem, Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Co., Inc., Publishers.

Holmes, Richard, 1985, Acts of War: The Behavior of Men in Battle, New York, NY: Free Press.

Kaplan, Robert D., 1996, The Ends of the Earth: A Journey to the Frontioers of Anarchy, New York, NY: Vintage.

Le Shan, Lawrence, 1992, The Psychology of War: Comprehending It's Mystique and It's Madness, Chicago, IL: The Noble Press, Inc.

Lider, Julian, 1980, Problems of the Classification of Wars, Stockholm, Sweeden: The Swedish Institute of International Affairs.

Luttwak, Ed N., 1987, Strategy: The Logic of War and Peace, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Pick, Daniel, 1993, War Machine: The Rationalization of Slaughter in the Modern Age, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.

Reisman, W. Michael, and Chris T. Antoniou, 1994, The Laws of War: A Comprehensive Collection of Primary Documents on International Laws Governing Armed Conflict, New York, NY: Vintage.

Small, Melvin, 1995, Was War Necessary? National Security and U.S. Entry into War, Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.

Sun, Tzu, 1994, The Art of War, Boulder, CO: Westview Press.

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31. History of War and Peace

MAIN POINTS

1. The character (including organization, strategies, weaponry, casualties and other costs, etc.) of war has changed profoundly through human prehistory and history to recent times.
2. To a large extent this reflects very different patterns, processes, conditions, and underlying causes of conflict, conflict management, and conflict resolution.
3. The main trend has been toward increased size, complexity, destructiveness (including lethality), and impersonality (distance between killer and killed) of all aspects of war.
4. However, although little recognized and appreciated, peace may coincide with war in some sectors of society, and extended periods of peace in the sense of the absence of any warfare are known from various societies and periods in prehistory and history.

QUESTIONS

1. How has the character of war changed through prehistory?
2. Ancient history?
3. Recent history?
4. Since World War II?
5. To what extent may past trends be projected into the future?
6. What approaches have historians taken to the study of war and how have they changed through time?

REQUIRED READING

TEXT: Glossop Chs. VIII-XIII.

Gantzel, Klaus Jurgen, 1997, "War in the Post-World War II World: Some Empirical Trends and a Theoretical Approach," in War and Ethnicity: Global Connections and Local Violence, David Turton, ed., Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press, pp. 123-144.

Shy, John, 1993, "The Cultural Approach to the History of War," Journal of Military History 57:13-26.

ARTICLES

Coffman, Edward M., 1997, "The Course of Military History in the U.S. Since World War II," Journal of Military History 61(4):761-776.

BOOKS

Ball, S.J., 1998, The Cold War: An International History, 1947-1991, New York, NY: Arnold.

Bourne, Randolph S., 1964, War and the Intellectuals, New York, NY: Harper and Row Publishers.

Brecher, Michael, and Jonathan Wilkenfeld, 1997, A Study of Crisis, Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press.

Brogan, Patrick, 1990, The Fight Never Stopped: A Comprehensive Guide to Conflict Since 1945, New York, NY: Vintage.

Brogan, Patrick, 1992, World Conflicts: Why and Where They Are Happening, New York, NY: Bloomsbury.

Cleary, Thomas, 1991, The Japanese Art of War: Understanding the Culture of Strategy, Boston, MA: Shambhala.

Contamine, Philippe, 1980, War in the Middle Ages, New York, NY: Basil Blackwell.

Cowley, Robert, and Geoffrey Parker, 1996, The Reader's Companion to Military History, Boston, MA: Houghton-Mifflin.

Delbruck, Hans, 1990, History of the Art of War, Volumes I-IV, Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press.

Dwyer, Gwynne, 1985, War, New York, NY: Crown Publishers, Inc.

Eckhardt, William, 1992, Civilizations, Empires and Wars: A Quantitative History of War, Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Co., Inc., Publishers.

Ehrenreich, Barbara, 1997, Blood Rites: Origins and History of the Passions of War, New York, NY: Henry Holt and Co.

Ferrill, Arthur, 1997, The Origins of War, Boulder, CO: Westview Press.

Freedman, Lawrence, ed., 1994, War, New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Gat, Azar, 1989, The Origins of Military Thought: From the Enlightenment to Clausewitz, Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press.

Kagan, Donald, 1995, On the Origins of War and the Preservation of Peace, New York, NY: Anchor.

Keegan, John, 1993, A History of Warfare, New York, NY: Vintage.

Kolko, Gabriel, 1994, Century of War: Politics, Conflicts, and Society Since 1914, New York, NY: The New Press.

Leckie, Robert, 1993, From Sea to Shining Sea: From the War of 1812 to the Mexican War, the Saga of American's Expansion, San Francisco, CA: HarperCollins Publishers.

Melko, Matthew, and Richard D. Weigel, 1981, Peace in the Ancient World, Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Co., Inc., Publishers.

Millis, Walter, 1981, Arms and Men: A Study of American Military History, New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.

Nicolle, David, 1996, Medieval Warfare: Sourcebook, London, UK: Arms and Armour.

Paret, Peter, ed., 1986, Makers of Modern Strategy: From Machiavelli to the Nuclear Age, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Rich, John, and Graham Shipley, eds., 1993, War and Society in the Greek World, New York, NY: Routledge.

Rich, John, and Graham Shipley, 1993, War and Society in the Roman World, New York, NY: Routledge.

Riley-Smith, Jonathan, 1987, The Crusades: A Short History, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.

Thucydides, 1970, History of the Peloponnesian War, New York, NY: Penguin.

Turnbull, Stephen, 1996, Samurai Warfare, London, UK: Arms and Armour.

Williams, T. Harry, 1981, The History of American Wars From 1745 to 1918, New York, NY: Alfred A. Knopf.

Xuanming, Wang, 1993, Six Strategies for War, Singapore: Asia-Pacific.

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32. Geography of War and Peace

MAIN POINTS

1. War and peace vary through space as well time, and wars are fought on and over spaces and the resources therein as part of geopolitics.
2. Geographical settings and factors such as boundaries, terrain, and natural resources may be prominent dynamics in warfare (security, strategy, intelligence, tactics, logistics, etc.).
3. Many wars in new countries have been fought over national boundaries established by past colonial powers which ignored previous history and ethnic relations.
4. Some geographic features in a region become strategic and security concerns in conflicts (e.g., Suez Canal, Hawaiian Islands, Batan Island, Gaza Strip, Berlin Wall, Demilitarized Zone between North Korea and South Korea, Spratly Island, Strait of Hormuz, Kashmir, Peace Park between Costa Rica and Nicaragua).
5. Thus, historical, economic, political, religious, and military geography can all be interrelated and are necessary considerations in the study of war.

QUESTIONS

1. What is geopolitics?
2. What is military geography and how is it related to other aspects of geography?
3. How are violence, aggression, and war distributed in space?
4. What geographical factors, images, and explanations are relevant to understanding war and related phenomena such as refugee migrations?
5. How do violence, aggression, and war change local, regional, and world geography?
6. Following world systems theory, how do the geographical, economic, and political spheres of center, semi-periphery, and periphery vary through time?
7. Do areas or zones of habitual war exist?
8. Do areas or zones of habitual peace exist?
9. What geographical factors, images, and explanations are relevant to understanding peace and related phenomena?

REQUIRED READING

Gray, Colin S., 1996, "The Continued Primacy of Geography," Orbis 40(2):247-259.

ARTICLES

Fuller, Graham E., 1997, "Redrawing the World's Borders," World Policy Journal XIV(1):11-21.

O'Sullivan, Patrick, 1996, "Dominoes or Dice: Geography and the Diffusion of Political Violence," Journal of Conflict Studies XVI(2):97-108.

Wusten, Herman van der, 1985, "The Geography of Conflict Since 1945," in The Geography of Peace and War, David Pepper and Alan Jenkins, eds., New York, NY: Basil Blackwell, pp. 13-28.

BOOKS

Kilot, Nurit, and Stanley Waterman, 1991, The Political Geography of Conflict and Peace, London, England: Belhaven Press.

O'Sullivan, Patrick, and Jesse W. Miller, Jr., 1983, The Geography of Warfare, New York, NY: St. Martin's Press.

Peltier, Louis C., and G. Etzel Pearcy, 1966, Military Geography, Princeton, NJ: D. Van Nostrand Co., Inc.

Pepper, David, and Alan Jenkins, eds., 1985, The Geography of Peace and War, New York, NY: Basil Blackwell.

Smith, Dan, 1997, State of War and Peace Atlas, New York, NY: Penguin.

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33. Colonial Violence, Wars, and "Pacification" (colonialism, neocolonialism, imperialism, slavery, nationalist and ethnic conflict; survival, decolonization, separatist movements, and irredentists; the synergy of ethnocide, genocide, and ecocide; and related human rights violations)

MAIN POINTS

1. Colonization involves the forced invasion, conquest, exploitation, and control of another people including their land, resources, economy, society, culture, history, polity, mind, and soul.
2. In the process violence, aggression, and war are often involved on the part of the colonizer, and as a reaction from those colonized such as wars of resistance and rebellion (e.g. Apache, Maori, Zulu).
3. Furthermore, some societies which have been considered violent and warlike may have become so as a result of the colonization, and they may have been much less violent and warlike, or even relatively nonviolent and peaceful, before colonization.
4. Many conflicts to this day in areas of the southern hemisphere are to some degree part of the legacy of colonialism (e.g., the recent genocidal crisis in Rwanda and Burundi).
5. Likewise, the process of decolonization may involve violence, aggression, and war (e.g., East Timor and Irian Jaya in modern Indonesia).
6. Many indigenous societies in frontier zones of colonial and/or neocolonial nations have become extinct (e.g., Tasmanians, Yahi, Yahgan).
7. However, it is an ideological myth that this is an inevitable component of "progress" since many have also survived centuries of colonization retaining to some degree their ethnic identity and striving for the right of self-determination (e.g., Hopi, Kogi, Hawaiians).

QUESTIONS

1. What is colonization?
2. How are violence, aggression, and warfare involved in colonization and decolonization?
3. How does the history of colonization in a region influence recent conflicts?
4. How does the immigration of people to countries from their former colonies relate to new "racial" and ethnic conflict there?

REQUIRED READING

Ferguson, R. Brian, 1992, "Tribal Warfare," Scientific American 266(1):108-113.

ARTICLES

Barta, Tony, 1987, "Relations of Genocide: Land and Lives in the Colonization of Australia," in Genocide and the Modern Age: Etiology and Case Studies of Mass Death, Isidor Walliman and Michael N. Dobkowski, eds., Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, pp. 237-252.

Bodley, John H., 1992, "Anthropology and the Politics of Genocide," in The Paths to Domination, Resistance and Terror, Carolyn Nordstrom and JoAnn Martin, eds., Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, pp. 37-51.

Diamond, Jared, 1988 (Aug.), "The Last First Contacts," Natural History 28-31.

Hitchcock, Robert K., and Tara M. Twedt, 1997, "Physical and Cultural Genocide of Various Indigenous Peoples," in Century of Genocide: Eyewitness Accounts and Critical Views, Samuel Totten, William S. Parsons, and Israel W. Charny, eds., New York, NY: Garland Publishing, Inc., pp. 372-407.

Jaulin, Robert, 1971, "Ethnocide: The Theory and Practice of Cultural Murder," The Ecologist 1(18):12-15.

Nietschmann, Bernard, 1987, "The Third World War," Cultural Survival Quarterly 11(3):1-16.

Smith, Derek, 1990, "Frontier Armageddon at Bloody Fort Mims," Army 40(1):44-50.

Sturtevant, William C., 1970, "Resolution on Forced Acculturation," Current Anthropology 11(2):160.

Tandon, Yash, 1994, "Recolonizing of Subject Peoples," Alternatives 19(2):173-183.

Taussig, Michael, 1984, "Culture of Terror: Roger Casement's Putumayo Report and the Explanation of Torture," Comparative Study of Society and History 26:467-497.

Worster, Robert, 1994, "Expansion and the Plains Indians Wars," in Encyclopedia of the American Military, John E. Jessup and Louise B. Ketz, eds., New York, NY: Charles Scribners' Sons, pp. 709-742.

BOOKS

Axelrod, Al;an, 1993, Chronicles of the Indian Wars: From Colonial Times to Wounded Knee, New York, NY: Konecky and Konecky.

Bodley, John, 1999, Victims of Progress, Mountain View, CA: Mayfield Publishing Co.

Brown, Dee, 1976, Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee: An Indian History of the American West, London, UK: Picador.

Burger, Julian, 1987, Report from the Frontier: The State of the World's Indigenous Peoples, London, UK: Zed Books.

Carver, Michael, 1980, War Since 1945, New York, NY: G.P. Putnam's Sons.

Curchill, Ward, ed., 1996, Indians Are Us? Culture and Genocide in Native North America.

Churchill, Ward, 1998, A Little Matter of Genocide: Holocaust and Denial in the Americas 1492 to the Present, San Francisco, CA: City Lights Books.

Edgerton, R.B., 1991, Mau Mau: An African Crucible, New York, NY: Ballantine.

Elsass, Peter, 1992, Strategies for Survival: The Psychology of Cultural Resilience in Ethnic Minorities, New York, NY: New York University Press.

Ferguson, R. Brian, and Neil L. Whitehead, eds., 1992, War in the Tribal Zone: Expanding States and Indigenous Warfare, Santa Fe, NM: School for American Research.

Hasager, Ula, and Jonathan Friedman, eds., 1994, Hawai'i: Return to Nationhood, Copenhagen, Denmark: International work Group for Indigenous Affairs.

Jaimes, M.A., ed., 1992, The State of Native America: Genocide, Colonization, and Resistance, Boston, MA: South End Press.

Marshall, S.L.A., 1972, Crimsoned Prairie: The Indian Wars, New York, NY: Da Capo.

Martin, Joel W., 1991, Sacred Revolt: The Muskogee's Struggle for a New World, Boston, MA: Beacon Press.

Robie, David, ed., 1989, Blood on Their Banner: Nationalist Struggles in the South Pacific, Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Zed Books, Ltd.

 

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34. Ethnic and Religious Conflict, Violence and Wars

MAIN POINTS

1. Since World War II conflicts between groups of different
ethnicity and religion have increased markedly (e.g., former countries of Yugoslavia and U.S.S.R.).
2. Some have attempted to reduce such conflicts simply to a vague inherent tendency of tribalism or in-group/out-group animosities, but a variable complex of different factors may be involved depending on the dynamics of the specific situation.
3. The US, NATO, UN, and other agencies hesitate to intervene in such conflicts because of the national sovereignty of the countries involved, the costs, and the difficulties of these explosive situations.
4. Still, there must be serious international concern because such conflicts may spread into adjacent countries, and they may even trigger larger scale warfare, making them a serious threat to international security and world peace.
5. Many low-intensity conflicts related to ethnic and/or religious
differences have persisted unresolved for decades, often in marginal or border zones (e.g, Kurds, Basques, Karen).
6. At the same time, in other situations societies which are multi-ethnic and multi-religious exist which are relatively nonviolent and peaceful.

QUESTIONS

1. What is ethnicity?
2. What are the causes of ethnic and religious conflict, violence, and war?
3. Why do some groups construct some "other" as inferior and the enemy?
4. Are there any remedies to prejudice based extremism and violence?
5. What is the history of animosities between some Christian and Muslim peoples, and how is this being manipulated for political purposes and promoting violence among some groups and countries since the end of the Cold War?
6. Is ethnic and religious based violence ever justified?
7. Should external nations such as the US and/or the U.N. ever intervene in ethnic and religious conflicts in other countries?
8. Are there nonviolent and peaceful alternatives for settling conflicts between different ethnic and/or religious groups?
9. Are there regions of the world where different ethnic and/or religious groups coexist in harmony, nonviolence, and peace?
10. Under what conditions is a religion either violence-reducing or violence-producing?
11. What are the future trajectories of violence/war and nonviolence/peace for countries of the modern world which are increasingly multi-ethnic and multi-religious?

REQUIRED READING

Huntington, Samuel P., 1993, "The Clash of Civilizations," Foreign Affairs 72:22-49.

Rapoport, David C., 1992, "Some General Observations on Religion and Violence," in Violence and the Sacred in the Modern World, Mark Jurgensmeyer, ed., London, England: Frank Cass, pp. 118-140.

Williams, Jr., Robin M., 1994, "The Sociology of Ethnic Conflicts: Comparative International Perspectives," Annual Review of Sociology 20:49-79.

Weigel, George, 1991, "Religion and Peace: An Argument Complexified," The Washington Quarterly 14(2):27-41.

ARTICLES

Amuzegar, Jahangir, 1993, "The Truth and Illusion of Islamic Fundamentalism," SAIS Review 13(2):127-139.

Bush, Kenneth, 1990, "Ethnic Conflict in Sri Lanka," Conflict Quarterly X(2):41-58.

Carment, David, and Patrick James, 1998, "The UN at 50: Managing Ethnic Crises- Past and Present," Journal of Peace Research 35(1):61-82.

Cohen, Mitchell, ed., 1996, "Embattled Minorities Around the Globe," Dissent, pp. 6-160.

Cooper, Robert, and Mats Berdal, 1993, "Outside Intervention in Ethnic Conflicts," Survival 35(1):118-142.

Garcia-Gasco y Vicente, Mons Agustin, 1997, "Christianity and Violence," in Violence: From Biology to Society, J.S. Grisolia, et al., eds., New York, NY: Elsevier, pp. 243-249.

Ganguly, Sumit, 1993, "Ethno-religious Conflict in South Asia," Survival 35(2):88-109.

Gottlieb, Gidon, 1994, "Nations without States," Foreign Affairs 73(3):100-112.

Hadar, Leon T., 1993, "What Green Peril?," Foreign Affairs 72(2):27-42.

Harner, Michael, 1977, "The Ecological Basis for Aztec Sacrifice," American Ethnologist 4:117-135.

Heald, Suzette, 1986, "The Ritual Use of Violence: Circumcision among the Gisu of Uganda," in The Anthropology of Violence, David Riches, ed., New York, NY: Basil Blackwell, pp. 70-85.

Hunter, Horace L., Jr., 1993, "Ethnic Conflict and Operations Other Than War," Military Review LXXIII(11):18-24.

Hunter, Shirean T., 1992, "The Muslim Republics of the Former Soviet Union: Policy Challenges for the US," The Washington Quarterly 15(3):57-71.

Huntington, Samuel P., 1996, "The West: Unique, Not Universal," Foreign Affairs 75(6):28-46.

The International Institute for Strategic Studies, 1993, "The Challenge of Self-Determination," Strategic Survey 1992-1993, pp. 16-31.

The International Institute for Strategic Studies, 1994, "Coming to Terms with Political Islam," Strategic Survey 1993-1994, pp. 16-24.

The International Institute for Strategic Studies, 1995, "Three Threats from Radical Islam," Strategic Survey 1994-1995, pp. 139-149.

Johansen, Robert C., 1997, "Radical Islam and Nonviolence: A Case Study of Religious Empowerment and Constraint Among Pashtuns," Journal of Peace Research 34(1):53-71.

Jup, James, 1997, "Creating Multicultural Societies: Australia, Sweden, and Canada," International Journal LII(3):508-523.

Kampelman, Max M., 1993, "Session and the Right of Self-Determination: An Urgent Need to Harmonize Principle with Pragmatism," The Washington Quarterly 16(3):5-12.

Kibble, David G., 1998, "Islamic Fundamentalism: A Transitory Threat?" Strategic Review XXVI(2):11-18.

Kitchen, Martin, 1995, "The Churches and the War," in his Nazi Germany at War, New York, NY: Longman, pp. 220-236.

Korem, Dan, 1994, "Occultic Gangs," in his Suburban Gangs: The Affluent Rebels, Richardson, TX: International Focus Press, pp. 171-197.

Laffin, John, 1990, "Holy War- Jihad," in his The World in Conflict 1990: War Annual 4, pp. 104-107.

Lewis, William H., 1996, "Algeria at 35: The Politics of Violence," The Washington Quarterly 19(3):3-18.

McGowan, William, 1993, "Burmese Hell," World Policy Journal X(2):47-56.

Miller, Judith, 1993, "The Challenge of Radical Islam," Foreign Affairs 72(2):43-56.

Nakamura, Hajime, 1974, "Violence and Nonviolence in Buddhism," in Violence and Aggression in the History of Ideas, Philip P. Wiener and John Fisher, eds., New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, pp. 173-186.

Parekh, Bhikhu, 1995, "Cultural Pluralism and the Limits of Diversity," Alternatives 20(4):431-457.

Rieff, David, 1997, "Case Study in Ethnic Strife [Azerbaijan]," Foreign Affairs 76(2):118-132.

Rubin, Barry, 1990, "Religion and International Affairs," The Washington Quarterly 134(2):51-63.

Rummel, Rudolph J., 1997, "Is Collective Violence Correlated with Social Plurality?," Journal of Peace Research 34(2):163-175.

Rupesinghe, Kumar, 1987, "Theories of Conflict Resolution and Their Applicability to Protracted Ethnic Conflicts," Bulletin of Peace Proposals 18:527-539.

Saikal, Amin, 1988, "Afghanistan's Ethnic Conflict," Survival 40(2):114-126.

Saravanamuttu, P., 1996, "Instability in Sri Lanka," Survival XXXII(5):455-468.

Serfaty, Simon, 1997, "Algeria Unhinged: What Next? Who Cares? Who Leads?," Survival 38(4):137-153.

Shehadi, Kamal S., 1993, "Ethnic Self-Determination and the Break-up of States," Adelphi Paper 283.

Sheils, Dean, 1980, "A Comparative Study of Human Sacrifice," Behavioral Science Research 15:245-262.

Shtromas, Alexander, 1992, "Religion and Ethnicity in World Order," International Journal on World Peace IX(2):33-45.

Sivan, Emmanuel, 1998, "The Holy War Tradition in Islam," Orbis 42(2):171-194.

Stavenhagen, Rodolfo, 1987, "Ethnic Conflict and Human Rights: Their Interrelationship," Bulletin of Peace Proposals 18:507-514.

Tal, Lawrence, 1995, "Dealing with Radical Islam: The Case of Jordan," Survival 37(3):139-156.

Tambiah, S.J., 1989, "Ethnic Conflict in the World Today," American Ethnologist 16(2):335-349.

Thompson, Leroy, 1994, "Ragged Wars Without End: Ongoing Religious Conflicts Around the World," in his Ragged War: The Story of Unconventional and Counter-Revolutionary Warfare, London, England: Arms and Armour, pp. 85-100.

Walker, William O., Jr., "A Willingness to Resort to Violence [Bahai faith]," in Violence: From Biology to Society, J.S. Grisolia, et al., eds., New York, NY: Elsevier, pp. 235-241.

Weigel, George, 1991, "Religion and Peace: An Argument Complexified," The Washington Quarterly 14(2):27-41.

Yinger, J. Milton, 1985, "Ethnicity," American Review of Sociology 11:151-180.

BOOKS

Brown, Michael E., 1993, Ethnic Conflict and Internal Security, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Connor, Walker, 1994, Ethnonationalism: The Quest for Understanding, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Dane, Leila, 1992, Conflict Resolution in the Middle East, McLean, VA: Institute for Victims of Trauma.

Daniel, E. Valentine, 1996, Charred Lullabies: Chapters in an Anthropology of Violence, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press [Sri Lanka].

Girard, Rene, 1977, Violence and the Sacred, Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.

Hicks, Robert D., 1991, In Pursuit of Satan: The Police and the Occult, Buffalo, NY: Prometheus Books.

Horowitz, Donald L., 1985, Ethnic Groups in Conflict, Berkeley, CA: University f California Press.

Ignatieff, Michael, 1997, The Warrior's Honor: Ethnic War and the Modern Conscience, New York, NY: Metropolitan Books.

Jurgensmeyer, Mark, ed., 1992, Violence and the Sacred in the Modern World, London, England: Frank Cass.

Sayyid, Bobby B., 1997, A Fundamentalist Fear: Eurocentrism and the Emergent Islamism, Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Zed Books.

Tambiah, Stanley J., 1986, Sri Lanka: Ethnic Fratricide and the Dismantling of Democracy, Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.

Tambiah, Stanley J., 1992, Buddhism Betrayed: Religion, Politics, and Violence in Sri Lanka, Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.

Tishkov, Valery, 1996, Ethnicity, Nationalism and Conflict in and after the Soviet Union: The Mind Aflame, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.

Turton, David, ed., 1997, War and Ethnicity: Global Connections and Local Violence, Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press.

van der Veer, Peter, 1994, Religious Nationalism: Hindus and Muslims in India, Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press.

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35. Genocide and "Ethnic Cleansing" (includes case studies on the Holocaust, former Yugoslavia, and Rwanda-Burundi)

MAIN POINTS

1. Genocide is the intentional mass murder, direct or indirect (imposing conditions inimical to survival), of a population, or segment thereof, of people identified by "race", ethnicity, or religion.
2. Government mass murder during this century alone has killed more than 169,198,000 human beings.
3. Ethnocide is the forced extinction of a culture or people's ethnicity, and this has happened to thousands of cultures in the last 500 years.
4. Depending on the circumstances, genocide and ethnocide may be quite independent, or they may act in synergy (e.g., Tasmanians, Yanomami, "ethnic cleansing" in former Yugoslavia).
5. There are different reasons for genocide and ethnocide--- against indigenous groups in colonial and neocolonial situations (e.g., Native Amazonians like the Yanomami, East Timor in Indonesia); power struggles during or after decolonization (Hutu and Tutsi in Burundi and Rwanda); for self-determination or against discrimination (e.g., Bangladesh); against hostage or scapegoat groups (e.g., Jews by Nazis in the Holocaust); etc.
6. While scholars have made substantial progress in documenting cases of genocide and even in identifying some of the contributing factors, they have made little headway in developing concrete recommendations for effectively preventing it although serious research on this is underway.

QUESTIONS

1. What are genocide, ethnocide, and "ethnic cleansing," and how are they related?
2. What are some cases of genocide prior to World War II?
3. What are the conditions and causes of genocide and ethnocide?
4. How have state governments rationalized and implemented genocide and ethnocide, and who has been complicit nationally and internationally?
5. What are the possibilities and obstacles for nations and/or the U.N. to intervene in countries to stop genocide or ethnocide?
6 Can genocide and ethnocide be prevented?
7. How are human rights related to genocide and ethnocide?
8. Considering the recent genocide in countries like Cambodia and Yugoslavia, has humanity really learned any lessons from the Holocaust of World War II?
9. Why do some individuals and groups deny the Holocaust?

REQUIRED READING

TEXT: Nordstrom and Robben pp. 186-204.

Aronson, Ronald, 1990, "Why? Towards a Theory of the Holocaust," in Thinking the Unthinkable: Meanings of the Holocaust, Roger S. Gottlieb, ed., Mahwah, NY: Paulist Press, pp. 25-45.

Charny, Israel W., 1988, "Intervention and Prevention of Genocide," in his Genocide: A Critical Bibliographic Review, New York, NY: Facts On File Publications, pp. 20-38.

Kuper, Leo, 1994, "Theoretical Issues Relating to Genocide: Uses and Abuses," in Genocide: Conceptual and Historical Dimensions, George J. Andreopoulos, Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, pp. 31-46.

Paskuly, Steven, 1992, "Wannsee Conference Minutes," in Death Dealer: The Memoirs of the SS Kommandant at Auschwitz by Rudolph Hess, Buffalo, NY: Prometheus Books, pp. 371-381.

Rummel, R.J., 1994, "169,198,000 Murdered: Summary and Conclusions," in his Death by Government, New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers, pp. 1-28.

ARTICLES

Chandler, David, 1994, "The Tragedy of Cambodian History Revisited," SAIS Review XIV(2):79-90.

Hervouet, Gerard, 1990, "The Cambodian Conflict: The Difficulties of Intervention and Compromise," International Journal LXV(2):258-291.

Jonassohn, Kurt, and Frank Chalk, 1987, "A Typology of Genocide and Some Implications for the Human Rights Agenda," in Genocide and the Modern Age; Etiology and Case Studies of Mass Death, Isidor Wallimann and Michael N. Dobkowski, eds., Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, pp. 3-20.

Mazian, Florence, 1990, "A Collective Behavior Approach to the Analysis of Genocide," in his Why Genocide? The Armenian and Jewish Experiences in Perspective, Ames, IO: Iowa State University Press, pp. 239-255.

Prasso, Sheri, 1994, "Cambodia: A Heritage of Violence," World Policy Journal XI(3):71-77.

Smith, Roger W., 1987, "Human Destructiveness and Politics: The Twentieth Century as an Age of Genocide," in Genocide and the Modern Age: Etiology and Case Studies of Mass Death, Isidor Wallimann and Michael N. Dobkowski, eds., Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, pp. 21-40.

Staub, Ervin, 1992, "The Origins of Genocide and Mass Killing: Core Concepts," in The Roots of Evil: The Origins of Genocide and Other Group Violence, Ervin Staub, New York, NY: Cambridge University Press, pp. 13-34.

BOOKS

Deac, Wilfred P., 1997, Road to the Killing Fields: The Cambodian War of 1970-1975, College Station, TX: Texas A & M University Press.

DePaul, Kim, and Dith Pran, 1997, Children of Cambodia's Killing Fields: Memoirs by Survivors, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.

Giraldo, Javier, 1996, Colombia: The Genocidal Democracy, Monroe, ME: Common Courage Press.

Hirsch, Herbert, 1995, Genocide and the Politics of Memory: Studying Death to Preserve Life, Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press.

Joyce, Christoper, and Eric Stover, 1991, The Stories Bones Tell: Witness from the Grave, New York, NY: Ballantine Books.

Kressel, Neil J., 1996, Mass Hate: The Global Rise of Genocide and Terror, New York, NY: Plenum.

Markusen, Eric, and David Kopf, 1995, The Holocaust and Strategic Bombing: Genocide and Total War in the Twentieth Century, Boulder, CO: Westview Press.

Martin, Marie Alexandrine, 1994, Cambodia: A Shattered Society, Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

du Preez, Peter, 1994, Genocide: The Psychology of Mass Murder, New York, NY: Marion Boyars Publishers.

Staub, Ervin, 1992, The Roots of Evil: The Origins of Genocide and Other Group Violence, New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.

Totten, Samuel, William S. Parsons, and Israel W. Charny, eds., 1997, Century of Genocide: Eyewitness Accounts and Critical Views, New York, NY: Garland Publishing, Inc.

Wallimann, Isidor, and Michael N. Dobkowski, eds., 1987, Genocide and the Modern Age: Etiology and Case Studies of Mass Death, New York, NY: Greenwood Press.

Welaratna, Usha, 1993, Beyond the Killing Fields: Voices of Nine Cambodian Survivors in America, Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.

 

CASE: Nazi Death Camps and the Final Solution

CASES

Frank, Anne, 1954, The Diary of Anne Frank, London, England: Pan.

Frankl, Victor E., 1959, Man's Search for Meaning, New York, NY: Simon and Schuster, Inc.

des Pres, Terrence, 1976, The Survivor: An Anatomy of Life in the Death Camps, New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Wiesel, Elie, 1982, Night, New York, NY: Bantam.

ARTICLES

Avisar, Ilan, 1997, "Holocaust Movies and the Politics of Collective Memory," in Thinking About the Holocaust: After Half a Century, Alvin H. Rosenfeld, ed., Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, pp. 38-58.

Bergen, Doris L., 1996, "Music and the Holocaust," in The Holocaust: Introductory Essays, David Scrase and Wolfgang Mieder, Burlington, VT: University of Vermont Center for Holocaust Studies, pp. 133-147.

Chasan, Joshua, 1996, "Religion and the Holocaust," in The Holocaust: Introductory Essays, David Scrase and Wolfgang Mieder, eds., Burlington, VT: University of Vermont Center for Holocaust Studies, pp. 179-189.

Eatwell, Roger, 1991, "The Holocaust Denial: A Study in Propaganda Technique," in Neo-Fascism in Europe, Luciano Cheles, Ronie Ferguson, and Michalina Vaughan, New York, NY: Longman, pp. 120-146.

Gottlieb, Roger S., ed., 1990, "Introduction," in Thinking the Unthinkable: Meanings of the Holocaust, Roger S. Gottlieb, ed., Mahwah, NY: Paulist Press, pp. 1-21.

Kushner, Tony, 1997, "`I Want to go on Living after my Death': The Memory of Anne Frank," in War and memory in the Twentieth Century, Martin Evans and Ken Lunn, eds., New York, NY: Berg, pp. 3-25.

Moore, J. Alan, 1996, "Philosophical Perspectives on the Holocaust," in The Holocaust: Introductory Essays, David Scrase and Wolfgang Mieder, eds., Burlington, VT: University of Vermont Center for Holocaust Studies, pp. 191-206.

Muller-Hill, Benno, 1994, "The Idea of the Final Solution and the Role of Experts," in The Final Solution: Origins and Implementation, David Cesarani, ed., New York, NY: Routledge, pp.62-70.

Rosenberg, Alan, 1987, "Was the Holocaust Unique? A Peculiar Question?," in Genocide and the Modern Age: Etiology and Case Studies of Mass Death, Isidor Wallimann and Michael N. Dobkowski, eds., Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, pp. 145-162.

Rubenstein, Richard L., and John K. Roth, 1987, "What is the Holocaust?," in their Approaches to Auschwitz: The Holocaust and Its Legacy, Atlanta, GA: John Know Press, pp. 3-20.

Scrase, David, 1996, "Art and the Holocaust," in The Holocaust: Introductory Essays, David Scrase and Wolfgang Mieder, eds., Burlington, VT: University of Vermont Center for Holocaust Studies, pp. 121-132.

Waite, Robert G.L., 1987, "The Holocaust and Historical Explanation," in Genocide and the Modern Age: Etiology and Case Studies of Mass Death, Isidor Wallimann and Michael N. Dobkowski, eds., pp. 163-184.

Wiesel, Elie, and Douglas P. Fry, 1997, "On Respecting Others and Preventing Hate: A Conversation with Elie Wiesel," in Cultural Variation in Conflict Resolution: Alternatives to Violence, Douglas P. Fry and Kaj Bjorkqvist, eds., Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Publishers, pp. 235-241.

BOOKS

Brenner, Rachael Feldhay, 1994, Writing as Resistance: Four Women Confronting the Holocaust, University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University Press.

Calzo, Nick Del, 1997, The Triumphant Spirit- Portraits and Stories of Holocaust Survivors- Their Message of Hope and Compassion, Denver, CO: Triumphant Spirit Publishing.

Cesarani, David, ed., 1994, The Final Solution: Origins and Implementation, New York NY: Routledge.

Dwork, Deborah, and Robert Jon van Pelt, 1996, Auschwitz, New York, NY: Norton.

Epstein, Helen, 1979, Children of the Holocaust Conversations with Sons and Daughters of Survivors, New York, NY: Penguin.

Fleming, Gerald, 1982, Hitler and the Final Solution, Berekely, CA: University of California Press.

Friedrian, Otto, 1994, The Kingdom of Auschwitz, San Francisco, CA: Harper and Collins.

Garbarz, Moshe, and Elie Garbarz, 1995, A Survivor, Detroit, MI: Wayne State University Press.

Geier, Arnold, 1993, Heroes of the Holocaust, Miami, FL: London Books/USA.

Gilbert, Martin, 1997, Holocaust Journey, New York, NY: Columbia University Press.

Gordon, A. Craig, 1991, The Germans, New York, NY: Meridian.

Gottlieb, Roger S., ed., 1990, Thinking the Unthinkable: Meanings of the Holocaust, Mahwah, NY: Paulist Press.

Grobman, Alex, and Daniel Landes, 1983, Genocide: Critical Issues of the Holocaust, A Companion to the Film Genocide, Los Angeles, CA: Simon Wiesenthal Center.

Gutman, Yisrael, and Michael Berenbaum, eds., 1994, Anatomy of the Auschwitz Death Camp, Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.

Halter, Marek, 1998, Stories of Deliverance: Speaking with Men and Women Who Rescued Jews from the Holocaust, La Salle, IL: Open Court.

Hellmann, Peter, ed., 1981, The Auschwitz Album: A Book Based Upon an Album Discovered by a Concentration Camp Survivor, Lili Meier, New York, NY: Random House.

Jacobs, Benjamin, 1995, The Dentist of Auschwitz, Lexington, KY: University Press of Kentucky.

Kaplan, Harold, 1994, Conscience and Memory: Meditation in a Museum of the Holocaust, Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.

Kisiel, Chester A., 1989, Music of Another World [Auschwitz], Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press.

Kogon, Eugene, 1998, The Theory and Practice of Hell: The German Concentration Camps and the System Behind Them, New York, NY: Berkeley Books.

La Capra, Dominick, 1994, History, Theory, Trauma: Representing the Holocaust, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.

Langer, Lawrence L., 1995, Art from the Ashes, A Holocaust Anthology, New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Lewin, Rhoda G., ed., 1990, Witness to the Holocaust: An Oral History, Boston, MA: Twayne Publishers.

Lifton, Robert Jay, 1986, The Nazi Doctors: Medical Killing and the Psychology of Genocide, New York, NY: Basic Books.

Lipstadt, Deborah, 1994, Denying the Holocaust: The Growing Assault on Truth and Memory, New York, NY: Penguin.

Niewyk, Donald L., ed., 1998, Fresh Wounds, Early Narratives of Holocaust Survival, Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press.

Paskuly, Steven, ed., 1992, Death Dealer: The Memoirs of the SS Kommandant at Auschwitz by Rudolph Hess, Buffalo, NY: Prometheus Books.

Pawelczynska, Anna, 1979, Values and Violence in Auschwitz: A Sociological Analysis, Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

Persico, Joseph E., 1994, Nuremburg: Infamy on Trial, New York, NY: Penguin.

Rosenbaum, Ronald, 1998, Explaining Hitler: The Search for the Origins of Evil, New York, NY: Random House.

Rosenfeld, Alvin H., ed., 1997, Thinking About the Holocaust: After Half a Century, Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.

Rossiter, Margaret L., 1986, Women in the Resistance, New York, NY: Praeger.

Rubenstein, Richard L., and John K. Roth, eds., 1987, Approaches to Auschwitz: The Holocaust and Its Legacy, Atlanta, GA: John Knox Press.

Schiff, Hilda, 1995, Holocaust Poetry, New York, NY: St. Martin's Press.

Scrase, David, and Wolfgang Mieder, eds., 1996, The Holocaust: Introductory Essays, Burlington, VT: The Center for Holocaust Studies (includes chapters on folklore, literature, art, music, film, video, religion, philosophy, etc.).

Spiller, Harry, 1997, Prisoners of Nazis: Accounts by American POWs in World War II, Jefferson, NC: McFarland and Co., Inc., Publishers.

Yahil, Leni, 1990, The Holocaust: The Fate of European Jewry, New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

 

CASE: The Balkans

ARTICLES

Austin, Robert, 1993, "What Albania Adds to the Balkan Stew," Orbis 37(1):259-279.

Barkey, Brett D., 1993, "Bosnia: A Question of Intervention," Strategic Review XXI(4):48-59.

Borden, Anthony, and Richard Caplan, 1996, "The Former Yugoslavia: The War and Peace Process," in SIPRI Yearbook 1996: Armaments, Disarmament and International Security, pp. 203-250.

Cappelli, Vanni, 1998, "The Macedonian Question...Again," The Washington Quarterly 21(3):129-135.

Card, Claudia, 1996, "Rape as a Weapon of War," Hypatia 11(4):5-18.

Cigar, Norman, 1993, "The Serbo-Croatian War, 1991: Political and Military Dimensions," in The Journal of Strategic Studies 16(3):297-338.

Foreign Affairs 1993, 72(3), special issue on Balkans war.

Gallagher, T., 1`997, "My Neighbour, My Enemy: The Manipulation of Ethnic Identity and the Origins and Conduct of War in Yugoslavia," in War and Ethnicity: Global Connections and Local Violence, David Turton, ed., Rochester NY: University of Rochester Press, pp. 47-75.

Glenny, Misha, 1995, "Heading Off War in the Southern Balkans," Foreign Affairs 74(3):98-108.

Gow, James, 1991, "Deconstructing Yugoslavia," Survival XXXIII(4):291-311.

The International Institute for Strategic Studies, 1995, "The Balkan Battlefields," Strategic Survey 1994-1995, pp. 93-105.

The International Institute for Strategic Studies, 1997, "Can Peace Last in Bosnia?," Strategic Survey 1996-1997, pp. 131-141.

Journal of Political and Military Sociology special issue on "The Balkans," 1996, 24(2).

Kressel, Neil J., 1996, "Ethnic Cleansing in Bosnia," in his Mass Hate: The Global Rise of Genocide and Terror, New York, NY: Plenum Press, pp. 13-45.

Larrabee, F. Stephen, 1992, "Instability and Change in the Balkans," Survival 34(2):31-49.

Mowlana, Hamid, 1994, "Muslims and Genocide in the Balkans," Peace Review 6(3):373-381.

Nelson, Daniel N., 1993, "A Balkan Perspective," Strategic Review XXI(1):26-39.

Oberg, Jan, 1993, "Conflict Mitigation in Former Yugoslavia," Peace Review 5( ):4-

Pajic, Zoran, 1998, "A Critical Appraisal of Human Rights Provisions of the Dayton Constitution of Bosnia and Herzegovina," Human Rights Quarterly 20(1):125-138.

Ramet, Sabrina Petra, 1992, "War in the Balkans," Foreign Affairs 71(4):79-98.

Rieff, David, 1995, "The Lessons of Bosnia: Morality and Power," World Policy Journal XII(1):76-88.

Rosenberg, Tina, 1994, "Albania: The Habits of Heart," World Policy Journal XI(4):85-94.

Salzman, Todd A., 1998, "Rape as a Means of Ethnic Cleansing: Religious, Cultural, and Ethical Responses to Rape Victims in the Former Yugoslavia," Human Rights Quarterly 20(2):348-378.

Schuett, Oliver, 1997, "The International War Crimes Tribunal for Former Yugoslavia and the Dayton Peace Agreement: Peace vs. Justice?," International Peacekeeping 4(2):91-114.

Strategic Review, "European Security Toward the Year 2000," Strategic Review XXI(1):7-60.

Thomas, Timothy L., 1992, "Ethnic Conflict: Scourge of the 1990s?" Military Review LXXII(12):14-26.

Zametica, John, 1992, "The Yugoslav Conflict," Adelphi Paper 270.

BOOKS

Allen, Beverly, 1996, Rape Warfare: The Hidden Genocide in Bosnia-Herzegovina and Croatia, Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press.

Bringa, Tom, 1995, Being Muslim the Bosnian Way: Identity and Community in a Central Bosnian Village, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Cohen, Leonard J., 1996, Broken Bonds: Yugoslavia's Disintegration and Balkan Politics in Transition, Boulder, CO: Westview Press.

Danopoulos, Constantine P., and Kostas Messas, eds., 1996, Crisis in the Balkans, Boulder, CO: Westview Press.

Holbrooke, Richard, 1998, To End a War, New York, NY: Random House.
Judah, Tim, 1997, The Serbs: History, Myth, and the Destruction of Yugoslavia, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.

Maass, Peter, 1996, Love Thy Neighbor: A War Story, New York, NY: Vintage.

Mestrovic, Stjepan G., ed., 1996, Genocide after Emotion: The Postemotional Balkan War, New York, NY: Routledge.

Stiglmayer, Alexandra, ed., 1994, Mass Rape: The War Against Women in Bosnia-Herzegovina, Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press.

Sudetic, Chuck, 1998, Blood Vengeance- One Family's Story of the War in Bosnia, New York, NY: W.W. Norton.

Tanner, Marcus, 1997, Croatia: A Nation Forged in War, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.

Woodward, Susan L., 1995, The Balkan Tragedy: Chaos and Dissolution After the Cold War, Washington, D.C: The Brookings Institution.

CASE: Burundi-Rwanda

ARTICLES

Abrams, Jason S., 1995, "Burundi: Anatomy of an Ethnic Conflict," Survival 37(1):144-164.

Barnett, Michael N., 1997, "The UN Security Council, Indifference, and Genocide in Rwanda," Cultural Anthropology 12(4):551-578.

Burkhalter, Holly J., 1994/1995, "The Question of Genocide- The Clinton Administration and Rwanda," World Policy Journal XI(4):44-54.

Clapham, Christopher, 1998, "Rwanda: The Perils of Peacemaking," Journal of Peace Research 35(2):193-210.

Goose, Stephen D., and Frank Smyth, 1994, "Arming Genocide in Rwanda," Foreign Affairs 73(5):86-96.

The International Institute for Strategic Studies, 1996, "Rwanda and Burundi Still Threatened," Strategic Survey 1995-1996, pp. 221-227.

Jones, Bruce D., 1995, "Intervention without Borders: Humanitarian Intervention in Rwanda, 1990-1994," Millennium 24(2):225-250.

Orth, Rick, 1997, "Four Variables in Preventive Diplomacy: Their Application in the Rwanda Case," The Journal of Conflict Studies XVII(1):79-100.

Suhrke, Astri, 1998, "Facing Genocide: The Record of the Belgian Battalion in Rwanda," Security Dialogue 29(1):37-48.

BOOKS

Malkki, Liisa, 1995, Purity and Exile: Violence, Memory, and National Cosmology among Hutu Refugees in Tanzania, Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.

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36. Military, Militarism, Militarization, and Militia

MAIN POINTS

1. The military as a formal organization of standing armed forces is an institution in most societies of history.
2. However, today there are some 26 countries in the world without an army, and there are numerous cultures in history and prehistory which have never had a military and militarism nor have ever been militarized.
3. In recent years military sociology has emphasized "armed forces and society" as its subject matter in recognition of the interactive and partially coterminous military and civilian spheres of many societies.
4. While some have considered the character of the "universal soldier," others have distinguished between different types of soldiers and soldiering: power elite, professional, common, citizen, third world, mercenary, and "recreational".
5. Anthropological studies have revealed some of the socialization, ideology, values, mythology, rituals, symbolism, and gender dimensions in the subculture of the military, including the weapons industry.
6. Contemporary issues in the military as a social institution reflecting the larger society plus as a professional armed force include: "race," ethnic, and class relations; the role of women and homosexuals, and in some "developing" countries even children as soldiers; substance abuse; professional ethics and morality as well as war crimes (e.g., My Lai massacre in Vietnam, Tailhook scandal, Nuremberg Trials); collateral damage in military attacks (injury and killing of innocent civilians); health effects of soldiering in war such as illness from Agent Orange, post traumatic stress, and the Gulf War syndrome; problems of recruitment, training, and re-entry into civilian life; and anti-war and anti-military sentiment. 7. Also some researchers assert that violence in war in other countries leads to increased violence at all levels of society at home, thus creating a synergy with systemic violence in the entire culture (e.g., crime rates often increase during and following wars).

QUESTIONS

1. What is military sociology and how does it compare with other disciplinary approaches to the study of the military and to peace and security studies?
2. What is the difference between the military and militia in the contemporary USA?
3. What is the difference between militarism and militarization?
4. In which cultures and nations is militarism most pronounced, and in which ones least?
5. Why is the world becoming more militarized?
6. Have some cultures and nations become demilitarized?
7. Are there alternatives to militarism and militarization?
8. Is the militia movement in the modern USA a threat to internal security and the common citizen (e.g., Oklahoma City bombing)?

REQUIRED READING

McCarthy, Barry, 1994, "Warrior Values: A Socio-Historical Survey," in Male Violence, John Archer, ed., New York, NY: Routledge, pp. 105-120.

Moskos, Charles C., Jr., 1976, "The Military," Annual Review of Sociology 2:55-77.

Windrow, Martin, and Frederick Wilkinson, 1971, "The Universal Soldier," in their The Universal Soldier: Fourteen Studies in Campaign Life A.D. 43-1944, Enfield, Middlesex, England: Guinness Superlatives, Ltd., pp. 9-16.

CASES

Gray, J. Glenn, 1967, The Warriors: Reflections on Men in Battle, New York, NY: Harper and Row Publishers.

Hynes, Samuel, 1997, The Soldier's Tale: Bearing Witness to Modern War, New York, NY: Penguin Books USA, Inc.

ARTICLES

Arkin, William, and Lynne R. Dobrofsky, 1978, "Military Socialization and Masculinity," Journal of Social Issues 34:151-168.

Burk, James, 1993, "Morris Janowitz and the Origins of Sociological Research on Armed Forces and Society," Armed Forces and Society 19(2):167-185.

Burk, James, 1996, "Collective Violence and World Peace: The Social Control of Armed Forces," Futures Research Quarterly 12(1):41-55.

Conteh-Morgan, Earl, 1993, "Conflict and Militarization in Africa: Past Trends and New Scenarios," Conflict Quarterly XIII(1):27-47.

Daveport, Christian, 1995, "Assessing the Military's Influence on Political Repression," Journal of Political and Military Sociology 23(1):119-144.

Higham, Robin, 1994, "War and the Military in American Society," in Encyclopedia of the American Military, John E. Jessup and Louise B. Ketz, eds., New York, NY: Charles Scribner's Sons, pp. 3-52.

Jessup, John E., 1994, "American Perspectives of War," in Encyclopedia of the American Military, John E. Jessup and Louise B. Ketz, eds., New York, NY: Charles Scribner's Sons, pp. 53-84.

Johnson, Douglas, and Steven Metz, 1994, "Civil-Military Relations in the U.S.: The State of the Debate," The Washington Quarterly 18(1):197-213.

Looney, Robert E., 1990, "Militarization, Military Regimes, and the General Quality of Life in the Third World," Armed Forces and Society 17(1):127-139.

Machamer, Richard F., 1993, "Avoiding a Military-Media War in the Next Armed Conflict," Military Review LXXIII(4):43-54.

Modell, John, and Timothy Haggerty, 1991, "The Social Impact of War," Annual Review of Sociology 17:205-224.

Mohammed, Nadir A.L., 1993, "Militarization in Sudan: Trends and Determinants," Armed Forces and Society 19(3):411-433.

Peace and Change 1998, 23(2), special issue on "Relocation of Japanese Americans During World War II: The Heart Mountain Experience."

Regan, Patrick M., 1994, "In Search of Generalizations: The Case of Brazil," in his Organizing Societies for War: The Process and Consequences of Societal Militarization, Westport, CT: Praeger, pp. 119-141.

BOOKS

Ammer, Christine, 1989, Fighting Words From War, Rebellion, and Other Combative Capers. New York, NY: Paragon House.

Coates, James, 1995, Armed and Dangerous: The Rise of the Survivalist Right, New York, NY: Hill and Wang.

Dees, Morris, 1996, Gathering Storm: America's Militia Threat, New York, NY: HarperCollins.

Elting, John R., Dan Cragg, Ernest L. Deal, 1984, A Dictionary of Soldier Talk, New York, NY: Charles Scribners' Sons.

Farwell, Byron, 1984, The Gurkhas, New York, NY: Norton.

Feld, Maury, 1977, The Structure of Violence: Armed Forces as Social Systems, Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.

Flynn, Kevin, and Gary Gerhardt, 1990, The Silent Brotherhood: The Chilling Story of America's Violent Anti-Government Militia Movement, New York, NY: Penguin Group.

Gibson, James William, 1994, Warrior Dreams: Paramilitary Culture in Post-Vietnam America, New York, NY: Hill and Wang.

Hoare, Mike, 1989, The Road to Kalamata: A Congo Mercenary's Personal Memoir, Lexington, MA: Leington Books.

Karsten, Peter, ed., 1986, The Military in America: From the Colonial Era to the Present, New York, NY: Free Press.

Kennedy, Gavin, 1974, The Military in the Third World, New York, NY: Charles Scribner's Sons.

Regan, Patrick M., 1994, Organizing Societies for War: The Process and Consequences of Societal Militarization, Westport, CT: Praeger.

Turney-High, Harry Holbert, 1981, The Military: The Theory of Land Warfare as Behavioral Science, West Hanover, MA: The Christopher Publishing House.

Wallensteen, Peter, Johan Galtung, and Carlos Portales, eds., 1985, Global Militarization, Boulder, CO: Westview Press.

Watson, P., 1980, War on the Mind: Military Uses and Abuses of Psychology, New York, NY: Penguin.

White, R.K., 1984, Fearful Warriors: A Psychological Profile of US-Soviet Relations, New York, NY: Free Press.

Willems, Emilio, 1986, A Way of Life and Death: Three Centuries of Prussian-German Militarism: An Anthropological Approach, Nashville, TN: Vanderbilt University Press.

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37. Civil or Internal War

MAIN POINTS

1. Civil or internal war occurs among factions within a single society, culture, or nation.
2. Such wars may be largely independent of any ethnic or religious differences (e.g., the Shinning Path in Peru).
3. Although there are many different conditions and causes which vary to some extent with the particular war, they may erupt in response to frustrations with structural violence (e.g., gross inequities in land distribution) and persistent human rights violations by tyrannical states which are no longer felt bearable.
4. Such wars may last for decades, and they may be prolonged by foreign influences including military and economic assistance (e.g., US with El Salvador, Guatemala, etc.).
5. Among the many costs of such wars are floods of political refugees immigrating to foreign countries.
6. In recent years the relative importance of internal war has increased, amounting to about 80% of the wars and casualties since World War II. (Between 1989-1996 only 5 of some 96 wars were between states, the rest being internal).
7. Internal wars are harder to explain as well as to prevent or to settle through negotiation than external wars.
8. Furthermore, the problem of internal war is likely to persist and even increase in the future.

QUESTIONS

1. What is the difference between internal (civil) and external (intern- or multi-national) wars?
2. Why has there been increased interest in internal wars in recent years?
3. What are the conditions, causes, and consequences of internal war?
4. What are the trends in internal wars in the recent past and into the near future?
5. What policies and interventions have been tried or proposed to prevent or halt internal wars?

REQUIRED READING

TEXT: Nordstrom and Robben pp. 42-61, 129-153, 276-294.

CASE

Anderson, Jon Lee, 1992, Guerrillas: The Men and Women Fighting Today's Wars, New York, NY: Times Books.

ARTICLES

Anonymous, 1990, "An Army Against Its People: The Tragic Case of Burma," Military Review LXX(6):69-75.

Berdal, Mats, 1996, "Disarmament and Demobilization After Civil Wars," Adelphi Paper 303.

Besteman, Catherine, 1996, "Representing Violence and "Othering" Somalia," Cultural Anthropology 11(1):120-133.

Collier, George, 1994, "The New Politics of Exclusion: Antecedents to the Rebellion in Mexico," Dialectical Anthropology 19(1):1-44.

Cultural Survival, 1994, "Special Report: Why Chiapas?," Cultural Survival Quarterly, pp. 14-34.

David, Steven R., 1997, "Internal War: Causes and Cures," World Politics 49(1):552-576.

Davis, Robert B., 1990, "Sendero Luminoso and Peru's Struggle for Survival," Military Review LXX(1):79-88.

Dietz, Henry, 1990, "Peru's Sendero Luminoso as a Revolutionary Movement," Journal of Political and Military Sociology 18(1):123-150.

Hilsman, Roger, 1993, "Guerrilla Warfare [Burma]," Military Review LXXIII(3):51-60.

King, Charles, 1997, "Ending Civil Wars," Adelphi Paper 308.

Langlois, Robert, 1997, "Becoming a Contra: The Dilemma of Peasants During the Revolution in Nicaragua," International Journal LII(4):695-713.

Levinson, David, 1994, "Internal Conflict," in his Aggression and Conflict: A Cross-Cultural Encyclopedia, Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, pp. 98-101.

Lewis, I.M., 1997, "Clan Conflict and Ethnicity in Somalia: Humanitarian Intervention in a Stateless Society," War and Ethnicity: Global Connections and Local Violence, David Turton, ed., Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press, pp. 179-201.

McFarlane, Ghraham, 1986, "Violence in Rural Northern Ireland: Social Scientific Models, Folk Explanation and Local Variation," in The Anthropology of Violence, David Riches, ed., New York, NY: Basil Blackwell, pp. 184-203.

Needler, Martin C., 1991, "El Salvador: The Military and Politics," Armed Forces and Society 17(4):569-588.

Otterbein, Keith F., 1968, "Internal War: A Cross-Cultural Comparison," American Anthropologist 70:277-289.

Peters, Ralph, 1996, "Winning Against Warriors," Strategic Review XXIV(3):12-21.

Ross, Marc H., 1985, "Internal and External Violence and Conflict: Cross-Cultural Evidence and a New Analysis," Journal of Conflict Resolution 29:547-579.

Spiro, Robert H., and Bretton G. Sciaroni, 1990, "The Unheralded 30-Year Struggle Against "Poor-Cousin" Guerrillas," Army 40(9):46-50.

Stone, Lawrence, 1971, "Theories of Revolution," in Why Revolution?: Theories and Analyses, Clifford T. Paynton and Robert Blackey, ed., Rochester, VT: Schenkman Books, Inc., pp. 263-279.

Vasquez, G.L., 1993, "Peruvian Radicalism and the Sendero Luminoso," Journal of Political and Military Sociology 21(2):197-218.

Wurst, Jim, 1994, "Mozambique: Peace and More," World Policy Journal XI(3):78-82.

BOOKS

Brown, Michael, ed., 1996, The International Dimensions of Internal Conflict, Cambridge, MA: Center for Science and International Affairs.

Brown, Michael, and Eduardo Fernandez, 1991, War of Shadows: The Struggle for Utopia in the Peruvian Amazon, Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

Feldman, Allen, 1991, Formations of Violence: The Narrative of the Body and Political Terror in Northern Ireland, Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.

Lan, David, 1985, Guns and Rain: Guerrillas and Spirit Mediums in Zimbabwe, Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

Licklider, Roy, ed., 1993, Stopping the Killing: How Civil Wars End, New York, NY: New York University Press.

Snow, Donald M., 1996, Uncivil Wars: International Security and the New Internal Conflicts, Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers.

Wesley, Michael, 1997, Casualties of the New World Order: The Causes of Failure of UN Missions to Civil Wars, New York, NY: Macmillan.

Wolf, Eric R., 1969, Peasant Wars of the Twentieth Century, New York, NY: Harper and Row.

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38. Low-intensity Conflict and other Unconventional Warfare

MAIN POINTS

1. The concept of low-intensity conflict was developed in the 1970s, but the phenomenon is not new, although it is increasing with the apparently more violent new world order.
2. American defense experts and others have used the term to refer to unconventional warfare involving a disparate range of small-scale aggressive activities such as localized guerrilla insurgency or terrorism.
3. However, many in such conflicts (e.g., Afghanistan, Angola, El Salvador, and Lebanon) would consider the conflict intense, and such conflicts can last years or even decades.
4. The difference from the perspective of defense experts is that there is no a massive mobilization of the nation, troops, equipment, and supplies, compared to Vietnam or the Gulf War.
5. Also low-intensity conflicts can not be won through the usual application of massive firepower by troops on a frontline, but require special operations programs and forces (e.g., military training missions, commandos, psychological operations) and especially political responses (e.g., international counter-terrorism policies and agreements).
6. The main objective on both sides is to influence the perceptions and loyalties of the civilian population.

QUESTIONS

1. What are low-intensity conflicts and how do they differ from conventional warfare?
2. What are some examples of low-intensity conflicts?
3. What are the trends in the development of low-intensity conflicts?
4. Why are political responses more important than military ones in confronting and resolving low-intensity conflicts?
5. How can low-intensity conflicts be prevented?

REQUIRED READING

MacDonald, Scott B., 1993, "The New "Bad Guys": Exploring the Parameters of the Violent New World Order," in The Gray Area Phenomena: Confronting the New World Disorder, Max G. Manwaring, Boulder, CO: Westview Press, pp. 33-60.

Thompson, Loren B., 1989, "Low-Intensity Conflict: An Overview," in his Low-Intensity Conflict: The Pattern of Warfare in the Modern World, Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, pp. 1-25.

ARTICLES

Evans, Ernest, 1997, "Definition of the Problem," in Wars Without Splender: The U.S. Military and Low-Level Conflict, Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, pp. 17-29.

Lider, Julian, 1986, "War: Marxist-Leninist Theory," in World Encyclopedia of Peace, Ervin Laszlo and Jong Youl Yoo, eds., New York, NY: Pergamon Press, volume 2, pp. 539-549.

McMahon, Bernard F., 1990, "Low-Intensity Conflict: The Pentagon's Foible," Orbis 34(1):3-16.

BOOKS

Charters, David A., and Maurice Tugwell, 1989, Armies in Low-Intensity Conflict: A Comparative Analysis, Washington, D.C.: Brassey's Defense Publishers.

Dewar, Michael, 1992, War in the Streets: The Story of Urban Combat from Calais to Khafji, London, England: David and Charles.

Manwaring, Max G., ed., 1991, Uncomfortable Wars: Toward a New Paradigm of Low Intensity Conflict, Boulder, CO: Westview Press.

Thompson, Loren B., 1989, Low-Intensity Conflict: The Pattern of Warfare in the Modern World, Lexington, MA: Lexington Books.

Thompson, Leroy, 1994, Ragged War: The Story of Unconventional and Counter-Revolutionary Warfare, London, England: Arms and Armour Press.

 

CASE: Palestinian Intifada

ARTICLES

Lustick, Ian S., 1993, "Writing the Intifada: Collective Action in the Occupied Territories," World Politics 45(4):560-594.

BOOKS

Brynen, Rex, ed., 1991, Echoes of the Intifada: Regional Repercussions of the Palestinian-Israeli Conflict, Boulder, CO: Westview Press.

Hilterman, Joost R., 1991, Behind the Intifada: Labor and Women's Movement in the Occupied Territories, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Hudson, Michael C., ed., 1990, The Palestinians: New Directions, Washington, D.C.: Center for Contemporary Arab Studies.

Hunter, F. Robert, 1991, The Palestinian Uprising: A War by Other Means, Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

Lockman, Zachary, and Joel Beinin, eds., 1989, Intifada: The Palestinian Uprising against Israeli Occupation, Boston, MA: South End Press.

McDowall, David, 1989, Palestine and Israel: The Uprising and Beyond, Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

Nassar, Jamal R., and Roger Heacocok, eds., 1990, Intifada: Palestine at the Crossroads, New York, NY: Praeger.

Peretz, Don, 1990, Intifada: The Palestinian Uprising, Boulder, CO: Westview.

Peteet, Julie, 1991, Gender in Crisis: Women and the Palestinian Resistance Movement, New York, NY: Columbia University Press.

Schiff, Ze'ev, and Ehud Ya'ari, 1990, Intifada: The Palestinian Uprising - Israel's Third Front, New York, NY: Simon & Schuster.

Zeev, Schiff, and Ehud Ya'ari, 1990, Intifada: The Palestinian Uprising: Israel's Third Front, New York, NY: Simon and Schuster.

 

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39. International and Multinational Wars (includes cases of World War II, Vietnam War, and Gulf War)

MAIN POINTS

1. Since states systems developed only within about the last 5,000 years or so, interstate wars are relatively recent phenomena from the perspective of human prehistory and cultural evolution which extends back at least two million years. Previously wars were limited mainly to conflicts within and between Neolithic (farming and pastoral) communities (tribes and chiefdoms).
2. Interstate wars, whether between two states (international), several states (multinational), or many states (world war), are better known from history than many of the previous types of war discussed.
3. Examples include World War I, World War II, the Korean War, Vietnam War, and most recently, the Gulf War.
4. Such wars depend on massive mobilization of the nation, troops, equipment, supplies, economy, etc., and they have a profound and long-term impact on the societies involved whether they win or lose.
5. Likewise, the military technology and institutions of interstate wars reach a much higher level of destruction, injury, and death.
6. Fortunately, the frequency and intensity of such wars has declined sharply in recent decades.
7. Also interstate wars have declined in the northern hemisphere, although internal wars have increased in the southern hemisphere.
8. There is no reason for complacency because many internal wars, including low-intensity conflicts are still terribly costly, and because they have the potential to escalate to involve higher levels of interstate conflict (e.g., Yugoslavia).

QUESTIONS

1. What different kinds of interstate wars have occurred in recent centuries?
2. What specific examples or cases can you cite?
3. What are the similarities and differences between World War I, World War II, the Korean War, the Vietnam War, and the Gulf War?
4. How do such wars effect individual nations and international relations in the short- and long-term?
5. What historical, geographical, technological, sociological, and political trends can be identified in interstate wars during recent centuries and recent decades?
6. What different approaches have been taken to documenting and explaining these wars?
7. Does the application of world systems theory provide insights into patterns, trends, and dynamics of interstate wars in recent centuries?
8. What policy and intervention measures have developed to prevent, reduce, and halt such wars?
9. Why are these kinds of wars better known than other kinds (e.g., low-intensity conflicts)?

REQUIRED READING

Pickett, William B., 1992, "Vietnam, 1964-1973: An American Dilemma," Journal of Military History 56:113-118.

Walsh, Jeffrey, 1997, "Remembering Desert Storm: Popular Culture and the Gulf War," in War and Memory in the Twentieth Century, Martin Evans and Ken Lunn, eds., New York, NY: Berg, pp. 205-222.

CASE

McNamara, Robert S., 1995, In Retrospect: The Tragedy and Lessons of Vietnam. New York, NY: Time Books.

ARTICLES

Borer, Douglas A., 1994, "The Afghan War: Communism's First Domino," War & Society 12(2):127-144.

Kohli, Atul, et al., 1995, "The Role of Theory in Comparative Politic," World Politics 48(1):1-49.

Mendelson, Sarah E., 1993, "Internal Battles and External Wars: Politics, Learning, and the Soviet Withdrawl from Afghanistan," World Politics 45(3):327-360.

Roy, Olivier, 1991, "The Lessons of the Soviet/Afghan War," Adelphi Papers 259.

BOOKS

Burchill, Scott, and Andrew Linklater, 1996, Theories of International Relations, New York, NY: St. Martin's Press.

Lynn-Jones, Sean M., and Steven E. Miller, 1994, The Cold War and After: Prospects for Peace: An International Security reader, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

War Annual 1998

 

CASE: World War II

CASES

Bassett, John T., 19989, War Journal of an Innocent Soldier, Hamden, CT: Archon Books.

Woltersdorf, Hans Werner, 1990, Gods of War: A Memoir of a German Soldier, Novato, CA: Presidio Press.

BOOKS

Benjamin, Walter W., 1996, War and Reflection: The Navy Air Corps: 1944-1946, Reflections on War Fifty Years Later, White Bear Lake, MN: Red Oak Press.

Bower, Tom, 1984, Klaus Barbie-The Butcher of Lyons, New York, NY: Pantheon Books.

Boyce, Robert, and Esmonde M. Robertson, eds., 1989, Paths to War: New Essays on the Origins of the Second World War, London, England: MacMillan.

Brivati, Brian, and Harriet Jones, eds., 1993, What Different Did the War Make?, Leicester, England: Leicester University Press.

Crozier, Andrew J., 1997, The Causes of the Second World War, New York, NY: Blackwell.

Cru, Jean Norton, 1988, War Books: A Study in Historical Criticism, San Diego, CA: San Diego State University Press.

Daws, Gavan, 1994, Prisoners of the Japanese, New York, NY: William Morrow.

Day, Ronnie, ed., 1997, South Pacific Diary, 1942-1943, Mack Morriss, Lexington, KY: University of Kentucky Press.

Dower, John,. 1986, War Without Mercy: Race and Power in the Pacific War, New York, NY: Pantheon Books.

Editions of Yank the Army Weekly, 1984, Yank: The Story of World War II: As Written by the Soldiers, New York, NY: Greenwich House.

Emsley, Clive, et al., 1990, World War II and Its Consequences, Buckingham, England: Open University Press.

Fiset, Louis, 1997, Imprisoned Apart: The World War II Correspondence of an Issei Couple, Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press.

Gaskin, Hilary, 1990, Eyewitnesses at Nuremburg, London, England: Arms and Armour.

Kitchen, Martin, 1995, Nazi Germany at War, New York, NY: Longman.

Linderman, Gerald F., 1997, The World Within War: America's Combat Experience in World War II, New York, NY: Free Press.

Parker, R.A.C., 1997, The Second World War: A Short History, New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Patton, George S., Jr., 1995, War As I Knew It, New York, NY: Houghton Mifflin.

Roetter, Charles, 1974, Psychological Warfare, London, England: B.T. Batsford, Ltd.

Rosenbaum, Ron, 1998, Explaining History, New York, NY: Random House.

Shelton, Regina Maria, 1982, To Lose a War: Memories of a German Girl, Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press.

Sim, Kevin, 1982, Women At War- Five Heroines Who Defied the Nazis and Survived, New York, NY: William Morrow and Co., Inc.

Solomon Islands College of Higher Education, 1988, The Big Death: Solomon Islanders Remember World War II, Suva, Fiji: University of the South Pacific.

White, Geoffrey M., and Lamont Lindstrom, 1989, The Pacific Theatre: Island Representations of World War II, Honolulu, HI: University of Hawaii Press.

Youth Divison of Soka Gakkai, 1983, Cries for Peace- Experiences of Japanese Victims of World War II, Tokyo, Japan: The Japan Times, Ltd.

 

CASE: Vietnam War

ARTICLES

Gates, John M., 1990, "People's War in Vietnam," Journal of Military History 54(3):325-344.

Herring, George C., 1991-1992, "America and Vietnam: The Unending War," Foreign Affairs 70(5):104-119.

McDougall, Walter A., 1995, "The Vietnamization of America," Orbis 39(4):479-489.

Rowe, John Carlos, 1989, ""Bringing it all back home" American Recyclings of the Vietnam War," in The Violence of Representation: Literature and the History of Violence, Nancy Armstrong and Leonard Tennenhouse, eds., New York, NY: Routledge, pp. 197-218.

Xiaoming, Zhang, 1996, "The Vietnam War, 1964-1969: A Chinese Perspective," Journal of Military History 60(4):731-762.

BOOKS

Baker, Mark, 1982, Nam: The Vietnam War in the Words of the Men and Women Who Fought There, New York, NY: William Morrow & Co.

Buzzanco, Robert, 1997, Masters of War: Military Dissent and Politics in the Vietnam Era, New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.

Bilton, Michael and Kevin Sim, 1992, Four Hours in My Lai, New York, NY: Penguin.

Caputo, Hilip, 1996, A Rumor of War, New York, NY: Henry Holt and Co.

Dean, Eric Y., Jr., 1997, Shook Over Hell: Post-Traumatic Stress, Vietnam,and the Civil War, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Downs, Frederick, 1978, The Killing Zone: My Life in the Vietnam War, New York, NY: W.W.Norton.

Ehrhardt, W.D., 1986, Passing Time: Memoir of a Vietnam Veteran Against the War, Amherst, MA: University of Amherst Press.

French, Peter A., ed., 1974, Individual and Collective Responsibility: The Massacre at My Lai, Cambridge, MA: Schenkman Publishing Co.

Gardner, Lloyd C., and Ted Gittinger, 1997, Vietnam: The Early Decisions, Austin, TX: University of Texas Press.

Gilbert, Adrian, 1997, Stalk and Kill: The Sniper Experience, New York, NY: St. Martin's Press.

Greenberg, Martin H., and Agustus Richard Norton, eds., 1985, Touring Nam: Vietnam War Stories, New York, NY: Quill.

Guarino, Larry, 1990, A P.O.W.'s Story- 2801 Days in Hanoi, New York, NY: Ivy Books.

Herring, George C., 1996, America's Longest War: The US and Vietnam, 1950-1975, New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.

Isaacs, Arnold R., 1997, Vietnam Shadows: The War, Its Ghosts, and Its Legacy, Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.

Karnow, Stanley, 1997, Vietnam: A History, New York, NY: Penguin.

Kolko, Gabriel, 1994, Anatomy of War: Vietnam, the US, and the Modern Historical Experience, New York, NY: The New Press.

Kulka, Richard A., et al., 1990, Trauma and the Vietnam War Generation, New York, NY: Brunner/Mazel Publishers.

Lindy, Jacob D., 1988, Vietnam: A Casebook, New York, NY: Brunner/Mazel Publishers.

Matsakis, Aphrodite, 1988, Vietnam Wives: Women and Children Surviving Life with Veterans Suffering Post Traumatic Stress Disorder, Washington, D.C.: Woodbine House.

Schulzinger, Robert D., 1997, A Time for War: The US and Vietnam 1941-1975, New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Shay, Jonathan, 1994, Achilles in Vietnam: Combat Trauma ad the Undoing of Character, New York, NY: Simon and Schuster.

Stevens, Richard L., 1993, The Trail: A History of the Ho Chi Minh Trail and the Role of Nature in the War in Viet Nam, New York, NY: Garland Publishing, Inc.

Ward, Joseph T., 1991, Dear Mom: A Sniper's Vietnam, New York, NY: Ivy Books.

 

CASE: Gulf War

ARTICLES

Bahgat, Gawdat, 1997, "Beyond Sanctions: US Policy Toward Iraq," International Relations XIII(4):57-68.

Dannrenther, Roland, 1991-1992, "The Gulf Conflict: A Political and Strategic Analysis," Adelphi Papers 264.

Dowty, Alan, 1994, "Sanctioning Iraq: The Limits of the New World," The Washington Quarterly 17(3):179-198.

Fuller, Graham E., 1993, "The Fate of the Kurds," Foreign Affairs 72(2):108-121.

Fuller, Graham E., and Ian O. Lesser, 1997, "Persian Gulf Myths," Foreign Affairs 76(3):42-52.

Garrity, Patrick J., 1993, "Implications of the Persian Gulf War for Regional Powers," The Washington Quarterly 16(3):153-170.

Gottschalk, Marie, 1992, "Operation Desert Cloud: The Media and the Gulf War," World Policy Journal IX(3):449-486.

International Institute for Strategic Studies, 1991, "War in the Middle East," Strategic Survey 1990-1991, pp. 49-102.

International Institute for Strategic Studies, 1993, "Sanctions: Effective Tool or Chimera?," Strategic Survey 1992-1993, pp. 39-46.

International Journal 1994, XLIX(2) special issue "After the Gulf War."

International Security 1997, 22(2), special issue on "The Gulf War and the Revolution in the Military Affairs."

Mylroie, Laurie, 1993, "Why Saddam Hussein Invaded Kuwait," Orbis 37(1):123-134.

Peace Review 1991 3(2) ("Consequences of the Gulf War").

Petersen, Charles C., 1993, "Lessons of the Persian Gulf War: The View from Moscow," Journal of Strategic Studies 17(3):238-254.

Survival 1990 XXXII(6), 1991 XXXIII (1), 1991 XXXIII(3) (special issues on the Gulf War).

The Washington Quarterly 1991, 14(3):125-197, special issue on "Regional Security After the Gulf War."

World Policy Journal 1991, VIII(3):537-574, special section on "The UN After the Gulf War."

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40. Nuclear Terror, Violence, and War (nuclear testing and bombing, irradiation experiments, and nuclear weapons as threat, deterrence, and terror)

MAIN POINTS

1. Humankind (or more accurately, a few nations) have yet to develop a more horrifying weapon of destruction than nuclear bombs and the missiles to deliver them.
2. The nuclear age started with US dropping of the first atomic bomb on the Japanese city of Hiroshima on August 6, 1945, and then three days later on Nagasaki. By the end of 1945 about 40% of the population of these cities had died, around 250,000 human beings, including civilians, women, children, and elderly.
3. No other weapon in history is so instantaneous, pervasive, indiscriminate, and long-lasting in effect at many levels (environmental, demographic, social, medical, psychological, etc.).
4. While these bombings were supposed to end World War II, they started an arms race that has sacrificed resources which could have advanced human welfare in many ways, and this includes the psychological terrorism even of kindergarten children. (A single "Stealth" bomber costs some $500,000,000).
5. Also indigenous people and their environments have been purposefully subjected to bomb testing and irradiation experiments by the US (Nevada, Marshall Islands), France (Tahiti), Britain (Australia), and the Soviet Union (Siberia), etc.
6. Many are convinced that there can NOT be any political rationalizations and moral justifications for the development and use of nuclear weapons.

QUESTIONS

1. How is nuclear war unlike any other war?
2. In what ways are the horrors and evils of nuclear warfare socially constructed and comprehended?
3. Is Hiroshima our text?
4. How many nuclear bombs and missiles are enough for stockpiles and deterrence?
5. Can nuclear war be survived?
6. What are the short-, middle- and long-term effects of nuclear war including nuclear winter?
7. Could a nuclear war be triggered accidentally?
8. Can the world ever be freed from nuclear weapons?
9. Has the disintegration of the former U.S.S.R. rendered the potential for nuclear war more or less likely?
10. What are the geopolitical, security, strategy, and warfare implications of the nuclearization of South Asia (i.e., the bombs recently tested in India and Pakistan)?
11. What are the political rationalizations and moral justifications for the development and use of nuclear weapons given by different nations and religions (e.g. Hindu dominated government in India and Muslims in Pakistan)?
12. How can science, philosophy, theology, and the arts help people comprehend nuclear weapons and war?

REQUIRED READING

Harris, John B., and Eric Markusen, eds., 1986, "Is Hiroshima Our Text?," in their Nuclear Weapons and the Threat of Nuclear War, New York, NY: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Publishers, pp. 1-23.

Ishikawa, Eisei, and David L. Swain, 1981, "The City of Hiroshima Peace Declaration" and "The City of Nagasaki Peace Declaration" in Hiroshima and Gagasaki: The Physical, medical, and Social Effects of the Atomic Bombings, The Committee for the Compilation of Materials on Damage Caused by the Atomic Bombs in Hiroshima and Nagasaki (translated by Eisei Ishikawa and David L. Swain), New York, NY: Basic Books, Inc, Publishers, pp. 611-614.

Kunkel, Joseph, and Kenneth Klein, 1989, "What Does Philosophy Add to Nuclear Discussions?: An Introductory Essay," in Issues in War and Peace: Philosophical Inquiries, Joseph C. Kunkel and Kenneth H. Klein, eds., Wolfeboro, NH: Longwood Academic, pp. 1-10.

Quester, George H., 1992, "The Future of Nuclear Deterrence," Survival 34:74-88.

CASE

Hersey, John, 1946, Hiroshima, New York, NY: Bantam Books.

ARTICLES

Alcalay, Glenn H., 1991, "Nuclear Colonialism in the Pacific," in Women's Voices on the Pacific, L. Foerstel, ed., Altantic Highlands, NJ: Zed Books, pp. 92-102.

Alperovitz, Gar, 1995, "Hiroshima: Historians Reassess," Foreign Policy 98:15-34.

Baylis, John, 1997, "The Future of Nuclear Weapons: Balancing Power and Morality," International Relations XIII(5):1-14.

Beres, Louis Rene, 1993, "Israel, Iran, and Prospects for Nuclear War in the Middle East," Strategic Review XXI(2):52-60.

Berntein, Barton J., 1995, "The Atomic Bombings Reconsidered," Foreign Affairs 74(1):135-152.

Bumsted, M. Pamela, et al., 1986, "Nuclear Winter: The Anthropology of Human Survival," Los Alamos, NM: Los Alamos National Laboratory Document LA-UR-86-370, pp. 1-84.

The Committee for the Compilation of Materials on Damage Caused by the Atomic Bombs in Hiroshima and Nagasaki, 1981, "The City of Hiroshima: Peace Declaration," and "The City of Nagasaki: Peace Declaration," in Hiroshima and Nagasaki: The Physical, Medical, and Social Effects of the Atomic Bombings, New York, NY: Basic Books, Inc., Publishers, pp. 611-614.

Crutzen, Paul J., 1985, "The Global Environment After a Nuclear War," Environment 27(8):6-11,34-37.

Gray, Colin S., 1990, "The Definitions and Assumption of Deterrence: Questions of Theory and Practice," Journal of Strategic Studies 13(4):1-18.

Gusterson, Hugh, 1992, "Coming of Age in a Weapons Lab," The Sciences, pp. 16-22.

Ispahani, Mahnaz, 1989-1990, "Pakistan: Dimensions of Insecurity," Adelphi Papers 246.

Joeck, Neil, 1997, "Maintaining Nuclear Stability in South Asia," Adelphi Papers 312.

Joseph, Robert G., and John F. Reichart, 1998, "The Case for Nuclear Deterrence Today," Orbis 42(1):7-19.

Kaysen, Carl, Robert S. McNamara, and George W. Rathjens, 1991, "Nuclear Weapons After the Cold War," Foreign Affairs 70(4):95-110.

Mandelbaum, Michael, 1995, "Lessons of the Next Nuclear War," Foreign Affairs 74(2):22-37.

Perkovich, George, 1996, "India, Pakistan, and the U.S.: The Zero-Sum Game," World Policy Journal XIII(2):49-55.

Rathjens, George, 1994, "Rethinking Nuclear Proliferation," The Washington Quarterly 18(1):181-193.

Ritcheson, Philip, 1993, "Nuclearization in South Asia," Strategic Review XXI(4):39-47.

Sagan, Carl, 1985, "Nuclear Winter: A Report from the World Scientific Community," Environment 27(8):12-15, 38-39.

Schlesinger, James, 1993, "The Impact of Nuclear Weapons on History," The Washington Quarterly 16(4):5-12.

Shohno, Naomi, 1986, "What Can We Do for Peace?," in her The Legacy of Hiroshima, Tokyo, Japan: Kosei Publishing Co., pp. 131-136.

The Washington Quarterly 1992, 15(1):91-142, special issue on "India."

Villiers, Roger Jardine de, 1993, "Why South Africa Gave Up the Bomb," Foreign Affairs 72(5):98-109.

Zinken, Maurice, 1997, "India: The New Tiger," International Relations XIII(6):33-41.

BOOKS

Ali, Akhtar, 1984, Pakistan's Nuclear Dilemma: Energy and Security Dimension, Karachi, Pakistan: Economist Research Unit.

Barash, David P., and Judith Eve Lipton, 1985, The Caveman and the Bomb: Human Nature, Evolution, and Nuclear War, New York, NY: McGaw-Hill Book Co.

Beckman, Peter R., et al., 1989, The Nuclear Predicament: An Introduction, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Borawski, John, ed., 1986, Nuclear Age: Confidence-Buidling Measures for Crisis Stability, Boulder, CO: Westview Press.

Cimbala, Stephen J., 1988, Nuclear Strategizing, Deterrence, and Reality, Westport, CT: Praeger.

Cimbala, Stephen J., 1998, The Past and Future of Nuclear Deterrence, Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers.

Firth, Stewart, 1987, Nuclear Playground, Honolulu, HI: University of Hawaii Press.

Gretcher, Frank L., and William J. Weida, 1990, Beyond Deterrence: The Political Economy of Nuclear Weapons, Boulder, CO: Westview Press.

Gusterson, Hugh, 1996, Nuclear Rites: A Weapons Laboratory at the End of the Cold War, Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

Hachiya, Michihiko, 1955, Hiroshima Diary- The Journal of a Japanese Physician, London, England: Victor Gollancz, Ltd.

Harris, John B., and Eric Markusen, eds., 1986, Nuclear Weapons and the Threat of Nuclear War, New York, NY: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich Publishers.

Ishikawa, Eisei, and David L. Swain, 1981, Hiroshima and Nagasaki: The Physical, Medicl, and Social Effects of the Atomic Bombings, New York, NY: Basic Books, Inc., Publishers.

Kegley Charles W., Jr., and Eugene R. Wittkopf, 1985, The Nuclear Reader: Strategy, Weapons, War, New York, NY: St. Martin's Press.

Kurtz, Lester R., 1988, The Nuclear Cage: A Sociology of the Arms Race, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Kurzman, Dan, 1986, Day of the Bomb: Countdown to Hiroshima, New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Book Co.

Lifton, Robert Jay, 1967, Death in Life: Survivors of Hiroshima, New York, NY: Random House, Inc.

Lifton, Robert Jay, 1995, Hiroshima in America: A Half-Century of Denial, New York, NY: Avon.

Osada, Arata, 1981, Children of Hiroshima: An Appeal from the Children of Hiroshima, London, England: Taylor and Francis, Ltd.

Paulson, Dennis, ed., 1986, Voices of Survival in the Nuclear Age, Santa Barbara, CA: Capra Press.

Popkess, Barry, 1980, The Nuclear Survival Handbook: Living Through and After a Nuclear Attack, New York, NY: Collier Books.

Schell, Jonathan, 1982, The Fate of the Earth, New York, NY: Alfred A. Knopf, Inc.

Schell, Jonathan, 1998, The Gift of Time: The Case for Abolishing Nuclear Weapons Now, New York, NY: Metropolitan Books.

Shohno, Naomi, 1986, The Legacy of Hiroshima: Its Past, Our Future, Tokyo, Japan: Kosei Publishing Co.

Shulstad, Raymond A., 1986, Peace is My Profession: A Soldier's View of the Moral Dimension of U.S. Nuclear Policy, Washington, D.C.: National Defense University Press.

Sodei, Rinjiro, (John Junkerman, ed.), 1998, Were We the Enemy? American Survivors of Hiroshima, Boulder, CO: Westview Press.

Stern, Paul C., et al., eds., 1989, Perspectives on Deterrence, New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Takaki, Ronald, 1995, Hiroshima: Why America Dropped the Atomic Bomb, Boston, MA: Little, Brown.

Thompson, James, 1985, Psychological Aspects of Nuclear War, New York, NY: John Wiley and Sons.

Turner, Paul R., and David Pitt, 1989, The Anthropology of War and Peace: Perspectives on the Nuclear Age, Granby, MA: Bergin and Garvey Publishers, Inc.

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41. Future War

MAIN POINTS

1. The future of war depends on the future of state government, the military, civilian sector, technology, economy, politics, ideology, morality, and other factors, since these are all interdependent in varying degrees and ways (e.g., landmines, nuclear weapons).
2. State systems may prevail, enlarge into superstates, or disintegrate into multiple polities (e.g., U.S.S.R.). (The state represents only the latest stage of cultural evolution, and for any evolutionist it is inconceivable that the state is the final stage of cultural evolution).
3. Some theorists have asserted that wars make states and states make war; to the extent that this principle is valid and continues to be so, then changes in states will stimulate changes in war, and vice versa.
4. However, states may not retain a monopoly on organized armed violence given the availability of automatic weapons, explosives, and other technology as well as information including websites (e.g., militia movement in US). (Yet some modern states have even abolished their army).
5. Perhaps the shift from interstate war to low-intensity conflicts reflects the main trend for the coming decades or even longer; and/or, perhaps terrorism by diverse individuals and groups is the form most future warfare will assume.
6. In such warfare various distinctions will fade and all may become vulnerable as targets: soldier/civilian, adult/child, front/rear zones, rural/urban, nature/culture, secular/sacred, etc. 7. Speculations are just that, but they must be calculated in planning alternative future scenarios, security arrangements, and strategies, as well as in considering the prospects of any really meaningful peace. (Also some alternatives can be rated and assessed by degree of probability).

QUESTIONS

1. What predictions about the future (short, middle, and long-term) of war can be made from past experience (history)?
2. Do literature (e.g., science fiction), Hollywood movies, and video games offer any leads and insights?
3. What, when, where, who, how, and why will future wars be fought?
4. What will be the environmental, social, and human consequences?
5. What measures will be developed to prevent, manage, and resolve violent conflicts?
6. Are peace movements likely to have any significant effect?

REQUIRED READING

Creveld, Martin van, 1991, "Future War," in his The Transformation of War, New York, NY: The Free Press, pp. 192-223.

Snow, Donald M., 1996, "Bloody Futures?," in his Uncivil Wars: International Security and the New Internal Conflicts, Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, pp. 143-160.

CASE

Toffler, Alvin, and Heidi Toffler, 1993, War and Anti-War: Survival at the Dawn of the 21st Century, Boston, MA: Little, Brown and Co.

Weinberger, Casper, and Peter Schweizer, 1996, The Next War, Washington, D.C.: Regnery Publishing, Inc.

ARTICLES

Adelphi Papers 1990-1991, Nos. 256-257, special issues on "America's Role in a Changing World."

Armitage, Richard L., 1990, "U.S. Security in the Pacific in the 21st Century," Strategic Review XVIII(3):9-18.

Art, Robert J., 1992-1993, "A U.S. Military Strategy for the 1990s: Reassurance without Dominance," Survival 34(4):3-23.

Betts, Richard K., 1998, "The New Threat of Mass Destruction," Foreign Affairs 77(1):26-41.

Cohen, Eliot A., 1996, "A Revolution in Warfare," Foreign Affairs 75(2):37-54.

Desjarlais, Robert, and Arthur Kleinman, 1994, "Violence and Demoralization in the New World Disorder," Anthropology Today 10(5):8-12.

Ehrenreich, Barbara, 1997, "The Further Evolution of War in the Twentieth Century," in her Blood Rites: Origins and History of the Passions of War, New York, NY: Henry Holt and Co., pp. 225-241.

Etzold, Thomas E., 1990, "The Strategic Environment of the Twenty-First Century: Alternative Futures for Strategic Planners," Strategic Review XVIII(2):23-31.

Freedman, Lawrence, 1991-1992, "Order and Disorder in the New World," Foreign Affairs 71(1):20-37.

Fromkin, David, 1993, "The Coming Millennium: World Politics in the Twenty-First Century," World Policy Journal X(1):1-7.

Glover, Michael, 1982, "Excess and Indiscriminate Violence," in his The Velvet Glove: The Decline and Fall of Moderation in War, London, England: Hodder and Stoughton, pp. 243-251.

Huntington, Samuel P., 1993, "The Clash of Civilizations?," Foreign Affairs 72:22-49.

The international Institute for Strategic Studies, 1996, "The Role of Non-Lethal Weapons," Strategy Survey 1995-1996, pp. 40-48.

The International Institute for Strategic Studies, 1996, "The Problem of Combat Reluctance," Strategy Survey 1995-1996, pp. 48-57.

Kaplan, R.D., 1994, "The Coming Anarchy," Atlantic Monthly 273(2):44-76.

Kokoski, Richard, 1994, "Non-Lethal Weapons: A Case Study of New Technology Development," SIPRI Yearbook 1994, pp. 367-386.

Laffin, John, 1992, "War Trends- Racing Towards Conflict," The World in Conflict: War Annual 6, pp. 220-233.

Lewer, Nick, and Steven Schofield, 1997, "Conclusion: The Future Role of Non-Lethal Weapons," in their Non-Lethal Weapons: A Fatal Attraction?: Military Strategies and Technologies for 21st-Century Conflict, Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Zed Books, pp. 127-134.

Lewis, Jason D., 1993, "Southeast Asia- Preparing for a New World Order," The Washington Quarterly 16(1):187-200.

Liotta, P.H., 1998, "A Strategy of Chaos," Strategic Review XXVI(2):19-30.

MacDonald, Scott B., 1993, "The New "Bad Guys": Exploring the Prameters of the Violent New World Order," in Gray Area Phenomenna: Confronting the New World Disorder, Max G. Manwaring, ed., Boulder, CO: Westview Press, pp. 33-60.

Mahnken, Thomas G., 1993, "America's Next War," The Washington Quarterly 16(3):171-184.

Mansfield, Edward, and Jack Snyder, 1995, "Democratization and War," Foreign Affairs 74(3):79-97.

Maoz, Zeev, ed., 1997, "Regional Security in the Middle East- Past, Present and Future," The Journal of Strategic Studies 20(1):1-202.

Moller, Bjorn, and Hakan Wiberg, 1994, "Introduction," in their Non-Offensive Defense for the Twenty-First Century, Boulder, CO: Westview Press, pp. 1-7.

Nye, Joseph S., Jr., 1996, "Conflicts After the Cold War," The Washington Quarterly 19(1):5-24.

Parker, Geoffrey, 1995, "The Future of Western Warfare," in his The Cambridge Illustrated History of Warfare: The Triumph of the West, New York, NY: Cambridge University Press, pp. 364-373.

Sayigh, Yezid, 1990, "Confronting the 1990s: Security in the Developing Countries," Adelphi Papers 251.

Sempa, Francis P., 1992, "The Geopolitics of the Post-Cold War World," Strategic Review XX(1):9-18.

Sullivan, Gordon R., and James M. Dubik, 1993, "Land War in the 21st Century," Military Review LXXIII(9):13-32.

Thomas, Raju G.C., 1993, "South Asia Security in the 1990s," Adelphi Papers 278.

BOOKS

Al-Mashat, Abdul-Monem, 1985, National Security in the Third World, Boulder, CO: Westview Press.

Baker, David, 1982, The Shape of Wars to Come, New York, NY: Stein and Day Publishers.

Beer, Francis A., 1981, Peace Against War: The Ecology of International Violence, San Francisco, CA: W.H. Freeman and Co.

Bellamy, Chris, 1987, The Future of Land Warfare, London, England: Croom Helm.

Bjorkqvist, Kaj, and Pirkko Niemela, eds., 1992, Of Mice and Women: Aspects of Female Aggression,

Creveld, Martin van, 1991, The Transformation of War, New York, NY: Free Press.

Dupuy, Trevor N., 1993, Future Wars: The World's Most Dangerous Flashpoints, New York, NY: Warner Books, Inc.

Friedman, George, and Meredith Friedman, 1996, The Future of War, New York, NY: St. Martin's Griffin.

Glover, Michael, 1982, The Velvet Glove: The Decline and Fall of Moderation in War, London, England: Hodder and Stoughton.

Gray, Colin S., 1990, War, Peace, and Victory: Strategy and Statecraft for the Next Century, New York, NY: Simon and Schuster.

Hosmer, Stephen T., 1987, Constraints on U.S. Strategy in Third World Conflicts, New York, NY: Crane Russak and Co.

Huntington, Samuel P., 1996, The Clash of Civilization: The Remaking of World Order, New York, NY: Simon and Schuster.

Leslie, John, 1994, The End of the World: The Science and Ethics of Human Extinction, New York, NY: Routledge.

Lewer, Nick, and Steven Schofield, 1997, Non-Lethal Weapons: A Fatal Attraction? Military Strategies and Technologies for 21st Century Conflict, Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Zed Books.

Moller, Bjorn, and Hakan Wiberg, 1994, Non-Offensive Defence for the Twenty-First Century, Boulder, CO: Westview Press.

Moore, Thomas, 1997 (1507), Utopia, Mineola, NY: Dover.

Norris, John, and Will Fowler, 1997, NBC: Nuclear, Biological and Chemical Warfare on the Modern Battlefield, Herndon, VA: Brassey's Inc.

Shaker, Steven M., and Alan R. Wise, 1988, War Without Men: Robots on the Future Battlefield, Washington, D.C.: Pergamon-Brassey's.

Shaw, Martin, 1991, Post-Military Society: Militarism, Demilitarization and War at the End of the Twentieth Century, Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press.

United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research, 1990, Nonoffensive Defense: A Global Perspective, New York, NY: Taylor and Francis.

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42. Women, Aggression and War

MAIN POINTS

1. Violence (including war) and gender roles (and stereotypes) covary in many ways; men are more likely to be perpetrators of violence, and women are more likely to be the victims (e.g., spouse abuse, rape).
2. However, females can also be violent--- some serial killers are female, and women may serve in the military in battle, even though traditionally men have a near monopoly on warfare.
3. Gender differences in violence can not be simply reduced to either nature (e.g., sex chromosomes and hormones, body size and strength) or nurture (e.g., socialization, social roles, values), but involve a complex dynamic of numerous interacting factors which vary with different contexts.
4. War impacts on women in numerous and diverse ways (factory work; systematic rape; trapped in cross-fire; shortage of food, goods and services; displacement and refugees; suffering and death of family members; etc.).
5. The significant relationship between women and violence/war as well as women and nonviolence/peace has been grossly neglected but is being increasingly recognized (e.g., Yugoslavia).

QUESTIONS

1. What gender differences exist in violence?
2. What roles have women played in the military, war, nonviolence, peace, and rights?
3. How do these roles vary historically, cross-culturally, and cross-nationally?
4. Are new roles emerging with changes in society, technology, economy, politics, education, values, and morality?
5. In what ways have women been impacted by war (e.g., rape in Yugoslavia)?

REQUIRED READING

Bouvard, Marguerite Guzman, 1994, "Introduction: The Mothers of the Plaza de Mayo," in her Revolutionizing Motherhood: The Mothers of Plaza de Mayo, Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources, Inc., pp. 1-17.

Burbank, Victoria K., 1987, "Female Aggression in Cross-Cultural Perspective," Behavior Science Research 21:70-100.

Schirmer, Jennifer G, 1989, "Those Who Die for Life Cannot Be Called Dead: Women and Human Rights Protest in Latin America," Feminist Review 32:3-29.

Vickers, Jeanne, 1993, "The Impact of War on Women," in her Women and War, Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Zed Books, pp. 18-37.

CASE

Marshall, Kathryn, 1987, Into the Combat Zone: Vivid Personal Recollections of the Vietnam War from the Women Who Served There, Baltimore, MD: Penguin.

ARTICLES

Aggressive Behavior, 1994, 20(3), special issue on "Aggression, Gender, and Sex."

Alternatives 1993, 18(1):1-118, special issue "Feminists Write International Relations."

Boulegue, Jean, 1991, "`Feminization' and the French Military: An Anthropological Approach," Armed Forces and Society 17(3):343-362.

Campbell, D'Ann, 1993, "Women in Combat: The World War II Experience in the US, Great Britain, Germany, and the Soviet Union," Journal of Military History 57(2):301-323.

Molloy, Patricia, 1995, "Subversive Strategies or Subverting Strategy? Toward a Feminist Pedagogy for Peace," Alternatives 20(2):225-242.

Philipose, Liz, 1996, "The Laws of War and Women's Human Rights," Hypatia 11(4):46-62.

Vickers, Jeanne, 1993, "The Impact of War on Women," in her Women and War, Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Zed Books, pp. 18-37.

BOOKS

Allen, Beverly, 1996, Rape Warfare: The Hidden Genocide in Bosnia-Herzegovina and Croatia, Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press.

Burbank, V.K., 1994, Fighting Women: Anger and Aggression in Aboriginal Australia, Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

Chang, Iris, 1998, The Rape of Nanking: The Forgotten Holocaust of World War II, New York, NY: Basic Books.

Cook, Alice, and Gwyn Kirk, 1983, Greenham Women Everywhere: Dreams, Ideas, and Actions from the Women's Peace Movement, London, UK: Pluto Press.

Damousi, Joy, and Marilyn Lake, 1995, Gender and War: Australians at War in the Twentieth Century, New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.

Elshtain, Jean, 1987, Women and War, Brighton, England: Harvester ess.

Enloe, Cynthia, 1983, Does Khaki Become You? The Militarization of Women's Lives, London, UK: Pluto Press.

Gavin, Lettie, 1997, American Women in World War I: They Also Served, Niwot, CO: University Press of Colorado.

Gioseffi, Daniela, ed., 1988, Women on War: Essential Voices for the Nuclear Age, New York, NY: Simon and Schuster.

Harris, Adrienne, Ynestra King, eds., 1989, Rocking the Ship of State: Toward a Feminist Peace Politics, Boulder, CO: Westview Press.

Haug, M., et al., 1992, The Aggressive Female, Den Haag, The Netherlands: Gegevens Koninkyle Bibliotheek.

Koonz, Claudia, 1987, Mothers in the Fatherland: Women, the Family and Nazi Politics, New York, NY: St. Martin's Press.

Lynn, Vera, et al., 1990, Unsung Heroines: The Women Who Won the War, London, England: Sidgwick and Jackson.

Macdonald, Sharon, Pat Holden, and Shirley Ardener, eds., 1987, Images of Women in Peace and War: Cross-Cultural and Historical Perspectives, New York, NY: Macmillan.

Mitchell, David, 1965, Women on the Warpath: The Story of the Women of the First World War, London, England: Jonathan Cape.

Saywell, Shelley, 1986, Women in War, Baltimore, MD: Penguin Books.

Stiglmayer, Alexandra, ed., 1994, Mass Rape: The War Against Women in Bosnia-Herzegovina, Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press.

Taylor, Eric, 1988, Women Who Went to War 1938-1946, London, England: Robert Hale.

Thompson, Dorothy, 1983, Over Our Dead Bodies- Women Against the Bomb, London, England: Virago Press.

Vickers, Jeane, 1988, Women and War, Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Zed Books.

Wagner, Lilya, 1989, Women War Correspondents of World War II, Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.

Waller, Jane, and Michael Vaughan-Rees, 1987, Women in Wartime- The Role of Women's Magazines 1939-1945, London, England: Macdonald and Co.

Weatherford, Doris, 1990, American Women and World War II, New York, NY: Facts on File.

 

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43. Benefits and Costs of War

MAIN POINTS

1. It is important to systematically and critically analyze and assess the costs as well as supposed benefits of war as a separate topical focus.
2. Many levels and aspects must be considered including individual (personal physical, emotional, moral, and spiritual well-being) as well as system (environment, technology, economy, society, politics, religion, and values) and changes therein (e.g., Vietnam War, civil war and genocide in Cambodia).
3. Furthermore, the impacts of war may persist years or even decades after its cessation (e.g., post traumatic stress disorder).

QUESTIONS

1. What are the benefits of war?
2. What are the costs of war?
3. What are the costs of peace?
4. What are the benefits of peace?

REQUIRED READING

TEXT: Glossop Ch. VII

Bebber, Charles C., 1994, "Increases in U.S. Violent Crime During the 1980s Following Four American Military Actions," Journal of Interpersonal Violence 9(1):109-116.

Modell, John, and Timothy Haggerty, 1991, "The Social Impact of War," Annual Review of Sociology 17:205-224.

Saperstein, Robert, and Dana Saperstein, 1992, "The Emotional Wounds of War," Military Review LXXII(1):54-61.

ARTICLES

Berens, Robert J., 1992, "POWs: Quiet Herorism in Ambiguity," Army 42(9):34

Crook, Paul, 1990, "War as Genetic Disaster? The First World War Debate over the Eugenics of Warfare," War & Society 8(1):47-70.

Cuomo, Chris J., 1996, "War Is Not Just an Event: Reflections on the Significance of Everyday Violence," Hypatia 11(4):30-45.

Glossop, Ronald J., 1994, "The Value of War," in his Confronting War: An Examination of Humanity's Most Pressing Problem, Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Co., Inc., Publishers, pp. 96-106.

The International institute for Strategic Studies, 1996, "The Problem of Combat Reluctance," Strategic Survey 1995-1996, pp. 48-56.

Journal of Political and Military Sociology special issue on "Military in Developing Societies," 1990, 18(2):177-342.

Laurie, Clayton D., 1996, "The Ultimate Dilemma of Psychological Warfare in the Pacific: Enemies Who Don't Surrender, and GIs Who Don't Take Prisoners," War & Society 14(1):99-120.

Loescher, Gil, 1992, "Refugee Movements and International Security," Adelphi Papers 268.

Raudzens, George, 1997, "In Search of Better Quantification for War History: Numerical Superiority and Casualty Rates in Early Modern Europe," War & Society 15(1):1-30.

Saperstein, Robert, and Dana Saperstein, 1992, "The Emotional Wounds of War[post-traumatic stress disorder]," Military Review LXXII(1):54-61.

Steele, Dennis, 1994, "D-Day Survivors Remember the `Great Crusade,'" Army 44(6):42-47.

Westing, Arthur H., 1982, "War as a Human Endeavor: The High Fatality Wars of the Twentieth Century," Journal of Peace Research 3:261-264.

Wirtz, Theresa, 1992, "The Role of Death in War," Peace Review 4(3):10-13.

BOOKS

Brandes, Stuart D., 1997, Warhogs: A History of War Profits in America, Lexington, KY: University of Kentucky Press.

Cranna, Michael, 1994, The True Cost of Conflict, London, England: Earthscan Publications, Ltd.

Denson, John V., ed., 19 , The Costs of War: America's Pyrrhic Victories, New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers.

Ellis, John, 1993, World War II: A Statistical Survey- The Essential Facts and Figures for All the Combatants, New York, NY" Facts on File.

Sivard, Ruth Leger, 1998, World Military and Social Expenditures, Washington, D.C.: World Priorities.

Wesbeter, Donovan, 1996, Aftermath: The Remnants of War, New York, NY: Vintage.

Whyness, David K., 1979, The Economics of Third World Military Expenditures, Austin, TX: University of Texas Press.

Yehuda, Rachel, and Alexander C. McFarlane, eds., 1997, Psychobiology of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder, New York, NY: New York Academy of Sciences.

 

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44. War, Resources, and Environment

MAIN POINTS

1. The environment (e.g., terrain) may not only shape war, but also war may shape the environment (e.g. scorched earth tactics like burning oil wells in Kuwait).
2. Uneven and ineqitable distributions of natural resources have been a factor in many conflicts throughout prehistory and history.
3. Furthermore, increasing resource depletion and environmental degradation may contribute to economic competition and political struggles which can become violent as demonstrated by the location and conditions of many of the world's "hot spots."
4. Also neomalthusians argue that increasing population and growing scarcities of renewable resources will increasingly feed sociopolitical instability and violent conflicts during the next century, unless more sustainable and equitable economies and societies are developed along with population stability.
5. Security at the regional, national, international, and global levels must encompass environmental and resource as well as economic and political considerations and these must be factored into foreign policy (e.g., oil in the Gulf War),.
6. Environmental problems and crises are not always isomorphic with national boundaries, but may contribute to either conflicts or cooperation between states, depending on the specific circumstances.
7. A nuclear war would not only impact on ecosystems in the immediate region, but have global consequences on the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere.

QUESTIONS

1. How does the environment effect war?
2. How does war effect the environment?
3. What is the relationship between violence and war on the one hand, and on the other factors such as the unequal and inequitable distributions of resources, the depletion of resources and degradation of environments, and growing levels of population and consumption?
4. How has security usually been defined and why is the environment increasingly being recognized as a relevant factor?
5. What would be the short- , middle- and long-term environmental consequences of nuclear war locally, regionally, and globally?

REQUIRED READING

Dabelko, Geoffrey D., and P.J. Simmons, 1997, "Environment and Security: Core Ideas and US Government Initiatives," SAIS Review XVII(1):127-146.

Gleditsch, Nils Petter, 1998, "Armed Conflict and the Environment: A Critique of the Literature," Journal of Peace Research 35(3):381-400.

Homer-Dixon, T.F., J.H. Boutwell, and G.W. Rathjens, 1993, "Environmental Change and Violent Conflict," Scientific American 263(2):38-45.

Westing, Arthur H., 1986, "An Expanded Concept of International Security," in his Global Resources and International Conflict: Environmental Factors in Strategic Policy and Action, New York, NY: Oxford University Press, pp. 183-200.

ARTICLES

Baenninger, Ronald, 1991, "Violence Toward Other Species," in Targets of Violence and Aggression, Ronald Baenninger, ed., New York, NY: North-Holland, pp. 5-44.

Barnaby, Frank, 1991, "The Environmental Impact of the Gulf War," The Ecologist 21(4):166-172.

Bissell, Richard E., 1993, "The Natural Resource Wars: Let Them Eat Trees," The Washington Quarterly 17(1):149-165.

Brock, Lothar, 1991, "Peace Through Parks: The Environment on the Peace Research Agenda," Journal of Peace Research 28(4):407-423.

Butts, Kent Hughes, 1994, "Why the Military is Good for the Environment," in Green Security or Militarized Environment, Jyrki Kakonen, ed., Brookfield, VT: Darmouth Press, pp. 83-110.

Byers, Bruce A., 1994, "Armed Forces and the Conservation of Biological Diversity," in Green Security or Militarized Environment, Jyrki Kakonen, ed., Brookfield, VT: Dartmouth Press, pp. 111-130.

The Centre for Science and Environment, 1992, "Statement on Global Environmental Democracy," Alternatives 17(2):261-279.

Chapple, Christopher, 1990, "Ecological Nonviolence and the Hindu Tradition," in Perspectives on Nonviolence, K.V. Kool, ed., New York, NY: Springer-Verlag, pp. 168-177.

Cowdrey, Albert E., 1983, "The Environments of War," Environmental Review 7(2):155-164.

Dalby, Simon, 1992, "Security, Modernity, Ecology: The Dilemmas of Post-Cold War Security Discourse," Alternatives 17(1):95-134.

Drucker, Merrit P., 1989, "The Military Commander's Responsibility for the Environment," Environmental Ethics 11(2):135-152.

Ember, Carol R., and Melvin Ember, 1992, "Warfare, Aggression, and Resource Problems: Cross-Cultural Codes," Behavioral Science Research 26(1-4):169-186.

Ember, Carol R., and Melvin Ember, 1992, "Resource Unpredictability, Mistrust, and War," Journal of Conflict Resolution 36(2):242-262.

Environment special issue on the "Environmental Consequences of Nuclear War," 1988, 30(5).

Fairclough, A.J., 1991, "Global Environmental and Natural Resource Problems- Their Economic, Political, and Security Implications,"
The Washington Quarterly 14(1):81-98.

Finger, Matthias, 1991, "The Military, the Nation State, and the Environment," The Ecologist 21(5):220-225.

Fox, Michael Allen, 1987, "Nuclear Weapons and the Ultimate Environmental Crisis," Environmental Ethics 9(2):159-180.

Gordon, Sandy, 1993, "Resources and Instability in South Asia," Survival 35(2):66-87.

Graeger, Nina, 1996, "Environmental Security?," Journal of Peace Research 33(1):109-116.

Gronemeyer, Marianne, 1996, "The Ecology Movement- A New Field for Peace Education," in Three Decades of Peace Education Around the World: An Anthology, Burns, Robin J., and Robert Aspeslagh,, eds., New York, NY: Garland Publishing, Inc., pp. 211-222.

Grover, Herbet D., 1984, "The Climate and Biological Consequences of Nuclear War," Environment 26(4):6-13, 34-38.

Harwell, Michael A., and Thomas C. Hutchinson, 1985, "Ecological and Agricultural Effects," in Environmental Consequences of Nuclear War, Volume I, A. Barrie Pittock, et al., eds., New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, pp. 303-308.

Hassan, Shaukat, 1991, "Environmental Issues and Security in South Asia," Adelphi Papers 262.

Heiner, Howard, Daniel Heiner, and Kim Lowell, 1989, "Forest Utilization in War-Torn Nicaragua," Journal of Forestry 87(9):38-43, 45.

Helman, Udi, 1990, "Environment and the National Interest: An Analytical Survey of the Literature," The Washington Quarterly 13(4):193-206.

Helman, Udi, 1995, "Sustainable Development: Strategies for Reconciling Environment and Economy in the Developing World, The Washington Quarterly 18(4):189-207.

International Journal, 1989-1990, XLV(1) special issue on "The Greening of World Politics."

International Journal 1992, XLVII(4), special issue on "Environment and Development: Rio and After."

Journal of Peace Research 1998, 35(3), special issue on "Environmental Conflict."

Keller, Kenneth H., 1996, "Unpackaging the Environment," World Policy Journal XIII(3):11-23.

Luke, Timothy W., 1998, "The (Un)Wise (Ab)Use of of Nature: Environmentalism as Global Consumerism," Alternatives 23(2):175-212.

Millennium 1990, 19(3), special issue "Global Environmental Change and International Relations."

Orme, John, 1997/98, "The Utility of Force in a World of Scarcity," International Security 22(3):138-167.

Payne, Rodger A., 1998, "The Limits and Promise of Environmental Conflict Prevention: The Case of GEF," Journal of Peace Research 35(3):363-380.

Peace Review 1994, 6(3), special issue on "Development and Environment."

Pirages, Dennis Clark, 1991, "The Greening of Peace Research," Journal of Peace Research 28(2):129-133.

Pittock, A.B., et al., 1985, "Physical and Atmospheric Effects," in Mark A. Harwell, et al., eds., Environmental Consequences of Nuclear War, Volume II, New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, pp. 505-517

Renner, Michael, 1989, "National Security:The Economic and Environmental Dimensions," World Watch Paper No. 89.

Ronnfeldt, Carsten F., 1997, "Three Generations of Environment and Security Research," Journal of Peace Research 34(4):473-482.

Rotfeld, Adam Daniel, et al., 1992, "The Environment and Security," SIPRI Yearbook 1993, pp. 1-41.

Rowlands, Ian, 1991, "The Security Challenges of Global Environmental Change," The Washington Quarterly 14(1):99-114.

Shaw, R. Paul, 1993, "Warfare, National Sovereignty, and the Environment," Environmental Conservation 20(2): 113-119.

Steel, Dennis, 1993, "The Army's War for the Environment," Army 43(7):16-21.

Tickell, Crispin, 1993, "The World After the Summit Meeting at Rio," The Washington Quarterly 16(2):75-82.

Tir, Jaroslav, and Paul F. Diehl, 1998, "Demographic Pressure and Interstate Conflict: Linking Population Growth and Density to Militarized Disputes and Wars, 1930-1989," Journal of Peace Research 35(3):319-340.

Turco, Richard P., et al., 1990, "The Climate Effects of Nuclear War," Scientific American 251(2):33-43.

Turner, Tom, 1991, "Ground Zero: The American Military vs. The American Land," Wilderness 55:10-15, 31-33, 36.

Wapner, Paul, 1995, "Politics Beyond the State: Environmental Activism and World Politics," World Politics 47(3):311-340.

Warner, Sir Frederick, 1991, "The Environmental Consequences of the Gulf War," Environment 33(5):6-9, 25-26.

Westing, Arthur H., 1984, "Environmental Warfare: An Overview," in his Environmental Warfare: A Technical, Legal and Policy Appraisal, Philadelphia, PA: Taylor and Francis, pp. 3-12.

Westing, Arthur H., 1985, "The Threat of Biological Warfare" BioScience 35(10):627-633.

Westing, Arthur H., 1986, "Environmental Factors in Strategic Policy and Action: An Overview," in his Global Resources and International Conflict: Environmental Factors in Strategic Policy and Action, New York, NY: Oxford University Press, pp. 3-20.

Westing, Arthur H., 1988, "Towards Non-violent Conflict Resolution and Environmental Protection: A Synthesis," in Cultural Norms, War and Environment, Arthur H. Westing, ed., New York, NY: Oxford University Press, pp. 151-159.

Wood, Charles H., and Marianne Schmink, 1993, "The Military and the Environment in the Brazilian Amazon," Journal of Political and Military Sociology 21(1):81-105.

Zirker, Daniel, and Marvin Henberg, 1994, "Amazonia: Democracy, Ecology, and Brazilian Military Prerogatives in the 1990s," Armed Forces & Society 20(2):259-281.

 

BOOKS

Bellany, Ian, 1997, The Environment in World Politics: Exploring the Limits, Cheltenham, England: Edward Elgar.

Harwell, M.A., and T.C. Hutchinson, eds., 1985, Environmental Consequences of Nuclear War, Volume II: Ecological and Agricultural Effects, New York, NY: John Wiley.

Johnston, Barbara Rose, ed., 1994, Who Pays the Price? The Sociocultural Context of Environmental Crisis, Washington, D.C.: Island Press.

Johnston, Barbara Rose, ed., 1997, Life and Death Matters: Human Rights and the Environment at the End of the Millennium, Walnut Creek, CA: Altamira Press.

Kakonen, Jyrki, ed., 1994, Green Security or Militarized Environment, Brookfield, VT: Dartmouth.

Lanier-Graham, Susan D., 1993, The Ecology of War: Environmental Impacts of Weaponry and Warfare, New York, NY: Walker and Co.

Lewallen, John, 1971, Ecology of Devastation in Indochina, Baltimore, MD: Penguin Books, Inc.

London, Julius, and Gilbert F. White, eds., 1984, The Environmental Effects of Nuclear War, Washington, D.C.: American Association for the Advancement of Science.

Manes, Christopher, 1990, Green Rage: Radical Environmentalism and the Unmaking of Civilization, Boston, MA: Little, Brown.

McCulloch, Jock, 1984, The Politics of Agent Orange: The Australian Experience, Richmond, Victoria, Australia: Heinemann.

Myers, Norman, 1996, Ultimate Security: The Environmental Basis of Political Stability, Washington, D.C.: Island Press.

Peterson, Jeannie, ed., 1983, The Aftermath: The Human and Ecological Consequences of Nuclear War, New York, NY: Pantheon Books.

Pittock, A.B., et al., eds., 1985, Environmental Consequences of Nuclear War, Volume I Physical and Atmospheric Effects, New York, NY: John Wiley and Sons.

Renner, Michael, 1996, Fighting for Survival: Environmental Decline, Social Conflict, and the New Age of Insecurity, New York, NY: W.W. Norton & Co.

Riordan, Michael, ed., 1982, The Day After Midnight: The Effects of Nuclear War, Palo Alto, CA: Cheshire Books.

Schreurs, Miranda A., and Elizabeth C. Economy, eds., 1997, The Internationalization of Environmental Protection, New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.

Shabecoff, Philip, 1996, A New Name for Peace: International Environmentalism, Sustainable Development, and Democracy, Hanover, CT: University Press of New England.

Thomas, William, 1995, Scorched Earth: The Military's Assault on the Environment, Philadelphia, PA: New Society Publishers.

Westing, Arthur H., 1980, Warfare in a Fragile World: Military Impact on the Human Environment, London, England: Taylor and Francis.

Westing, Arthur H., ed., 1984, Environmental Warfare: A Technical, Legal and Policy Appraisal, Philadelphia, PA: Taylor and Francis.

Westing, Arthur H., 1986, Global Resources and International Conflict: Environmental Factors in Strategic Policy and Action, New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Westing, Arthur H., ed., 1988, Cultural Norms, War and the Environment, New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Wilcox, Fred A., 1983, Waiting for an Army to Die: The Tragedy of Agent Orange, New York, NY: Random House.

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PART VI - MANAGEMENT AND REDUCTION OF VIOLENCE

 

45. Military Intervention, Peacekeeping, and Humanitarian Assistance

MAIN POINTS

1. A pivotal issue of political debate, security, and strategy in the post-Cold War world is military intervention in the internal affairs of states plagued by civil war, low-intensity conflict, and other forms of violence.
2. Opponents of intervention emphasize national sovereignty while proponents offer moral and practical arguments.
3. Failures (e.g., Somalia) and apparent successes (e.g., Haiti) of military intervention both need critical analysis and assessment.
4. Increasingly the military is also called upon to provide humanitarian assistance (e.g., famine and natural disaster relief), but such missions may become mired in conflict (e.g., Somalia).
5. Mission types include peacekeeping, observation, collective enforcement, election supervision, humanitarian assistance during conflict, state/nation building, pacification, preventive deployment, arms control verification, protective services, intervention in support of democracy, and sanctions enforcement.

QUESTIONS

1. Is the military necessarily violent and warlike?
2. Can the military act without violence and war to promote nonviolence and peace?
3. What are the possible roles of military intervention by U.S., NATO, U.N., and other forces for peacemaking, peace building, promoting democracy, and constructing a new world order?
4. How does the mass media influence public opinion and in turn military intervention (e.g., publicity over massacre in Sarajevo)? 5. Is the demilitarization of individual nations and the world practical and/or desirable (e.g., Germany and Japan after WWII)?

REQUIRED READING

Cooper, Robert, and Mats Berdal, 1993, "Outside Intervention in Ethnic Conflicts," Survival 35(1):118-142.

Diehl, Paul F., Daniel Druckman, and James Wall, 1998, "International Peacekeeping and Conflict Resolution," Journal of Conflict Resolution 42(1):33-55.

Hoffman, Stanley, 1995-96, "The Politics and Ethics of Military Intervention," Survival 37(4):29-51.

Peters, Ralph, 1996, "Winning Against Warriors," Strategic Review XXIV(3):12-21.

ARTICLES

Arnold, S.L., 1993, "Somalia: An Operation Other Than War," Military Review LXXIII(12):26-35.

Blechman, Barry M., 1995, "The Intervention Dilemma," The Washington Quarterly 18(3):63-73.

Bolton, John R., 1994, "Wrong Turn in Somalia," Foreign Affairs 73(1):56-66.

Carr, Caleb, 1993, "The Consequences of Somalia," World Policy Journal V(3):1-4.

Cimbala, Stephen J., 1994, "Military Persuasion and the American Way of War," Strategic Review XXII(4):33-43.

Clark, Jeffrey, 1992-1993, "Debacle in Somalia," Foreign Affairs 72(1):109-123.

Clarke, Walter, and Jeffrey Herbst, 1996, "Somalia and the Future of Humanitarian Intervention," Foreign Affairs 75(2):70-85.

Eikenberry, Karl W., 1993, "The Challenges of Peacekeeping," Army 43(9):14-20.

Fisher, David, "The Ethics of Intervention," Survival 36(1):51-59.

Gillespie, Thomas R., 1993, "Unwanted Responsibility: Humanitarian Military Intervention to Advance Human Rights," Peace & Change 18(3):219-246.

Howe, Jonathan T., 1995, "The US and UN in Somalia: The Limits of Involvement," The Washington Quarterly 18*3):49-62.

International Institute for Strategic Studies, 1993, "Sanctions: Effective Tool or Chimera?," Strategic Survey 1992-1993, pp. 39-46.

International Journal 1993, XLVIII(4), special issue on "Humane Intervention."

Jackson, Robert H., 1993, "Armed Humanitarianism," International Journal XLVIII(4):579-606.

Mays, Terry M., 1996, "Introduction," in Historical Dictionary of Multinational Peacekeeping, Terry M. Mays, Lanham, MD: The Sacrecrow Press, Inc., pp. xiii-xxvi.

Natsios, Andrew S., 1993, "Food Through Force: Humanitarian Intervention and U.S. Policy," The Washington Quarterly 17(1)129-144.

Rieff, David, 1995/1996, "The Humanitarian Trap," World Policy Journal XII(4):1-11.

Roberts, Adam, 1994, "The Crisis in UN Peacekeeping," Survival 36(3):93-120.

Roberts, Adam, 1996, "Humanitarian Action in War," Adelphi Paper 305.

Solarz, Stephen J., and Michael E. O'Hanlon, 1997, "Humanitarian Intervention: When Is Force Justified?," The Washington Quarterly 20(4):3-14.

Steele, Dennis, 1993, "Army Units Deploy to Assist Starving, War-Torn Somalia," Army 43(2):24-28.

Steele, Dennis, 1993, "Mogadishu, Somalia: The Price Paid," Army 43(11);25-26.

Verweij, Marco, 1995, "Cultural Theory and the Study of International Relations," Millennium 24(1):87-111.

Weber, Cynthia, 1995, "Dissimulating Intervention: A Reading of the US-Led Intervention into Haiti," Alternatives 20(3):265-277.

BOOKS

Ballard, John R., 1998, Upholding Democracy: The United States Military Campaign in Haiti, 1994-1997, Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers.

Connaughton, Richard, 1992, Military Intervention in the 1990s: A New Logic of War, New York, NY: Routledge.

Haass, Richard N., 1994, Intervention: The Use of American Military Force in the Post-Cold War World, Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace.

 

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46. Arms Control, Disarmament, and Demilitarization

MAIN POINTS

1. Some have argued that there is a synergetic effect among the military-industrial complex, economic growth and competition, political ideologies, and a culture of violence on the one hand, and on the other the arms trade, arms race, and limited success in arms control and disarmament.
2. Furthermore, the changing nature of warfare also effects the possibilities of arms trade, arms control, and disarmament.
3. Meanwhile societies and the world as a whole are increasingly becoming more dangerous and lethal with greater indirect and direct impacts on the civilian population.
4. At the same time, innovative ideas like non-offensive defense, non-lethal weapons, peace brigades, and nonviolent conflict resolution are being developed and implemented as alternatives to traditional defense and security approaches, although such ideas have many critics.
5. It has also been argued that ultimately nonviolence and peace (including disarmed and demilitarized societies and world) can only be achieved if they become more highly valued on both moral and economic grounds than violence and war.

QUESTIONS

1. What is the military-industrial complex and how is it and factors such as economics and ideology related to the arms trade, arms race, and disarmament?
2. How are the changing nature of war and the arms trade interrelated?
3. Which countries are the main players in the global arms trade?
4. How have geopolitical and international security concerns changed since the collapse of the U.S.S.R as a superpower?
5. What are the economic, political, and moral considerations connected with landmines?
6. What is the future of nuclear deterrence?
7. What innovations have been proposed as alternatives to traditional military, arms, and defense strategies?
8. What would disarmed and demilitarized societies and world be like?

REQUIRED READING

Daalder, Ivo H., 1992, "The Future of Arms Control," Survival 34(1):51-73.

Lewer, Nick, and Steven Schofield, 1997, "Conclusion: The Future Role of Non-Lethal Weapons," in their Non-Lethal Weapons: A Fatal Attraction? Military Strategies and Technologies for 21st-Century Conflict, Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Zed Books, pp. 127-134.

Moller, Bjorn, and Hakan Wiberg, 1994, "Introduction," in Non-Offensive Defence for the Twenty-First Century, Bjorn Moller and Hakan Wiberg, eds., Boulder, CO: Westview Press, pp. 1-7.

ARTICLES

Boutros-Ghali, Boutros, 1994, "The Land Mine Crisis," Foreign Affairs 73(5):8-13.

Cimbala, Stephen J., 1995-96, "Proliferation and Peace: An Agnoistic View,", Armed Forces and Society 22(2):211-233.

Dunn, Lewis A., 1991, "Containing Nuclear Proliferation," Adelphi Papers 263.

Eisenhower, Dwight D., 1961, "Farewell to the Nation: On the Dangers Created by the Military-Industrial Complex," [Presidential

Address by radio and television to the nation], in Making War Making Peace: The Social Foundations of Violent Conflict, Francesca M. Cancian and James William Gibson, eds., Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Co., pp. 169-172.

Faulkner, Frank, 1997, "Anti-Personnel Landmines: A Necessary Evil?," International Relations XIII(4):41-56.

Gupta, Amit, 1993, "Third World Militaries, New Suppliers, Deadlier Weapons," Orbis 37(1):57-68.

The International Institute for Strategic Studies, 1997, "Biological Weapons: New Threats or Old News?," in Strategic Survey 1996-97, pp. 31-41.

Johnson, Richard H., 1994, "Lethal Legacy of Land Mines," Army 44(1):34-39.

Klare, Michael T., 1984, "The Global Arms Market: A Briefing on the Arms Trade," in his American Arms Supermarket, Austin, TX: University of Texas Press, pp. 1-25.

Lacey, Edward J., 1994, "Tackling the Biological Weapons Threat: The Next Proliferation Challenge," The Washington Quarterly 17(4):53-64.

Pearson, Graham S., 1993, "Prospects for Chemical and Biological Arms Control: The Web of Deterrence," The Washington Quarterly 16(2):145-162.

Peters, Ann, 1996, "Landmines in the 21st Century," International Relations XIII(2):37-50.

Quester, George H., 1992, "The Future of Nuclear Deterrence," Survival 74-88.

Schmidt, Christian, 1987, "An Economic Contribution to the Analysis of War and Peace," in The Quest for Peace, Raimo Vayrynen, et al., eds., Newbury Park, CA: Sage, pp. 217-237.

The Washington Quarterly 1997, 20(1):77-210, special issue on "Nuclear Arms Control."

BOOKS

Brown, James, ed., 1992, Challenges in Arms Control for the 1990s, Amsterdam, The Netherlands: VU University Press.

Klare, Michael T., 1984, American Arms Supermarket, Austin, TX: University of Texas Press.

Koplow, David A., 1997, By Fire and Ice: Dismantling Chemical Weapons While Preserving the Environment, Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Gordon and Breach.

Melman, Seymour, 1988, The Demilitarized Society: Disarmament and Conversion, Nottingham, UK: Spokesman.

Price, Richard M., 1997, The Chemical Weapons Taboo, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.

Sharp, Gene, 1985, National Security Through Civilian-Based Defense, Omaha, NE: Association for Transarmament Studies.

 

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47. Philosophical, Religious, Ethical, and Moral Aspects of War

MAIN POINTS

1. To paraphrase the UN Charter, just as war begins in the minds of men so can peace; philosophy, ethics, and religion can provide thoughtful and soul searching insights into understanding and analyzing violence/war and nonviolence/peace which are inescapably ethical and moral matters.
2. For example, if the murder of a single human being is considered immoral and criminal, how can mass murder in war be considered acceptable, celebrated, glorified, and rewarded?
3. There have been centuries of debate on the issue of whether war in general and specific wars in particular are justified.
4. Religion may be used to sanction and sacralize violence (e.g., human sacrifice) and to justify war (e.g., Crusades), or it may be used to condemn violence and to criticize war (e.g., nuclear war).
5. The Holocaust, Geneva Convention, Nuremburg Trials, Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japanese Relocation Camps in the US during WWII, My Lai massacre, "collateral damage" (civilian injuries and deaths), indiscriminate weapons (nuclear bombs, landmines, chemical, and biological), arms race, rape as a political-military policy in the former Yugoslavia, sanctuary for refugees, conscientious objection and pacifism of Quakers and others, military chaplains, Christian principles of "Thou Shalt Not Kill" and "love thy enemy," capital punishment, nonviolence of Ghandi and Martin Luther King, Jr., peace and human rights movements, destruction of the Amazon, and economic sanctions on Iraq are among the numerous and diverse matters that raise profound moral as well as important political and legal questions which need to be addressed by students of philosophy, ethics, and religion as well as others.

QUESTIONS

1. What is the moral justification for maintaining a standing army?
2. What makes a war a just cause?
3. Is war state sanctioned mass murder?
4. How are ethics, morality, justice, and law involved in the conduct of war, including the treatment of enemy civilians, war prisoners, and war criminals?
5. Is the use of some military weapons such as land mines or chemical and biological weapons ever justified or moral?
6. Can the indiscriminate killing of people by nuclear bombs ever be justified?
7. Does nuclear deterrence rest on fallacies?
8. Does the United States have any moral standing to criticize the development of nuclear weapons by other nations such as India and Pakistan, considering its bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki and irradiation experiments on Marhsall Islanders?
9. What is the philosophical and moral basis for conscientious objection?
10. Should religious or secular conscientious objection be considered an international human right?
11. Are there nonviolent alternatives to war?

REQUIRED READING

Kurtz, Lester R., 1988, "The Church and the Bomb," in his The Nuclear Cage: A Sociology of the Arms Race, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, pp. 219-236.

Turpin, Jennifer, and Patience E. Patterson, 1996, "Sacrilizing Total War," Peace Review 8(2):195-199.

UNESCO, 1995, "Declaration on the Role of Religion in the Promotion of a Culture of Peace," Peace Review 7(1):113-116.

CASE

Zimmer, Timothy W.L., 1969, Letters of a Conscientious Objector from Prison. Valley Forge, PA: Hudson Press.

ARTICLES

Bennett, William C., 1991, "Just Cause and the Principles of War (Panama)," Military Review LXXI(3):2-13.

Davis, Howard, 1986, "Thinking the Unthinkable," in his Ethics and Defense: Power and Responsibility in the Nuclear Age, New York, NY: Basil Blackwell, pp. 1-21.

Fisher, David, 1994, "The Ethics of Intervention," Survival 36(1):51-59.

Gallie, W.B., 1983, "Fallacies in Discussions of Nuclear Weapons," in Dangers of Deterrence: Philosophers on Nuclear Strategy, Boston, MA: Routledge and Kegan Paul, pp. 157-178.

Hoffman, Stanley, 1995-1996, "The Politics and Ethics of Military Intervention," Survival 37(4):29-51.

Hollenbach, David, 1986, "Ethics in Distress: Can There Be Just Wars in the Nuclear Age?," in The Nuclear Dilemma and the Just War Tradition, William V. O'Brien and John Langan, eds., Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, pp. 13-29.

Kunkel, Joseph, and Kenneth Klein, 1989, "What Does Philosophy Add to Nuclear Discussions? An Introductory Essay," in their Issues in War and Peace: Philosophical Inquiries, Wolfeboro, NH: Longroow Academic, pp. 1-10.

Lee, Steven P., 1993, "Conflict Resolution," in his Morality, Prudence, and Nuclear Weapons, New York, NY: Cambridge University Press, pp. 293-334.

Maslowski, Peter, 1990, "Army Values and American Values," Military Review LXX(4):10-23.

Rainier, H. Spencer, 1993, "A Just War Primer," Military Review LXXIII(2):20-25.

Shea, Donald W., 1991, "A Ministry in the Eye of the Storm," Army 41(9):54-57.

Smith, Mason E., 1990, "Toward a Professional Military Ethic," Military Review LXX(5):74-82.

Soeters, Joseph L., 1997, "Value Orientations in Military Academies: A Thirteen Country Study," Armed Forces and Society 24(1):7-32.

Toner, James M., 1993, "Teaching Military Ethics," Military Review LXXIII(5):33-40.

Xicoy, Joaquim, et al., 1995, "Declaration on the Role of Religion in the Promotion of a Culture of Peace," Peace Review 7(1):113-116.

BOOKS

Albertini, Jim, et al., 1980, The Dark Side of Paradise: Hawaii in a Nuclear World, Honolulu, HI: Catholic Action of Hawaii Peace Education Project.

Barkenbus, Jack, ed., 1992, Ethics, Nuclear Deterrence and War, New York, NY: Paragon House.

Blake, Nigel, and Kay Pole, 1983, Dangers of Deterrence: Philosophers on Nuclear Strategy, Boston, MA: Routledge and Kegan Paul.

Brock, Peter, 1972, Pacifism in Europe in 1914, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Cady, Duane L., 1989, From Warism to Pacifism: A Moral Continuum, Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press.

Carston, F.L., 1982, War Against War: British and German Radical Movements in the First World War, Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

Child, James W., 1986, Nuclear War: The Moral Dimension, New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books.

Christopher, Paul, 1994, The Ethics of War and Peace: An Introduction to Legal and Moral Issues, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Coates, A.J., 1997, The Ethics of War, New York, NY: Manchester University Press.

Davis, Howard, ed., 1981, Ethics and Defense: Power and Responsibility in the Nuclear Age, New York, NY: Basil Blackwell.

Dyck, Harry R. van, 1990, Exercise of Conscience: A World War II Objector Remembers, Buffalo, NY: Prometheus Books.

Eller, Cynthia, 1991, Conscientious Objectors and the Second World War- Moral and Religious Arguments in Support of Pacifism, Westport, CT: Praeger.

Fotion, Nicholas G., 1990, Military Ethics, Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press and Hoover Institute.

Fotion, Nicholas G., and G. Elfstrom, 1986, Military Ethics: Guidelines for Peace and War, Boston, MA: Routledge and Kegan Paul.

Fox, Michael Allen, and Leo Groarke, eds., 1985, Nuclear War: Philosophical Perspectives, An Anthology, New York, NY: Peter Lang.

Garrett, Stephen A., 1993, Ethics and Airpower in World War II: The British Bombing of German Cities, New York, NY: St. Martin's Press.

Gelven, Michael, 1994, War and Existence: A Philosophical Inquiry, University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University Press.

Howard, Michael, George J. Andreopoulos, and Mark R. Shulman, 1997, The Laws of War: Constraints on Warfare in the Western World, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.

Kunkel, Joseph C., and Kenneth H. Klein, 1989, Issues in War and Peace: Philosophical Inquiries, Wolfeboro, NH: Longwood Academic Press.

La Croix, W.L., 1988, War and International ethics: Tradition and Today, Lanham, MD: University Press of America.

Lackey, Douglasd P., 1989, Ethics and Strategic Defense: American Philosophers Debate Star Wars and the Future of Nuclear Deterrence, Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Co.

Lackey, Douglas P., 1989, The Ethics of War and Peace, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Lee, Steven P., 1993, Morality, Prudence, and Nuclear Weapons, New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.

Matthews, Lloyd J., and Dale E. Brown, 1989, The Parameters of Military Ethics, New York, NY: Pergamon-Brassey's.

Moskos, Charles C., John White, Clay Chambers II, eds., 1993, The New Conscientious Objection: From Sacred to Secular Resistance, New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Noone, Michael F., Jr., 1989, Selective Conscientious Objection: Accommodating Conscience and Security, Boulder, CO: Westview Press.

Norman, Richard, 1995, Ethics, Killing and War, New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.

O'Brien, William V., and John Langan, 1986, The Nuclear Dilemma and the Just War Tradition, Lexington, MA: Lexington Books.

Paskins, Barrie, and Michael Dockrill, 1979, The Ethics of War, Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press.

Socknat, Thomas P., 1987, Witness Against War: Pacifism in Canada 1900-1945, Toronto, Canada: Universit of Toronto Press.

Wells, Donald A., 1967, The War Myth, New York, NY: Pegasus.

Wells, Ronald A., ed., 1991, The Wars of America: Christian Views, Macon, GA: Mercer University Press.

Whitmore, Todd, ed., 1989, Ethics in the Nuclear Age- Strategy, Religious Studies, and the Churches, Dallas, TX: Southern Methodist University Press.

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48. Nonviolence and Peace

MAIN POINTS

1. Violence and war can not be fully understood let alone reduced without also considering nonviolence and peace, just as health and disease are complementary phenomena.
2. However, there has been a systemic bias in peace studies, media, and other fields for almost exclusive attention to violence and war to the neglect of nonviolence and peace, something which itself may reflect the ethos or culture of violence in which researchers and others live and work.
3. Many argue that peace is more than simply the absence of war, it is also the presence of social and economic justice, human rights, nonviolent values and attitudes, nonviolent alternatives for conflict resolution and even for defense, etc.
4. Beyond the various sociopolitical movements for nonviolence, peace, human rights, and the environment, it is important to realize there are a number of progressive indicators such as the absence of the death penalty in 57 countries and territories of the world, the absence of an army in 26, and the recognition of conscientious objection to military service in 40.
5. It is also important to recognize, document, and understand the existence of such things as human nature, religion, social institutions, public policies, historical precedents, and human individuals which are nonviolent and non-killing.
6. The success of nonviolent methods of conflict resolution and political struggle has been repeatedly demonstrated in cases such as India, South Africa, Philippines, Haiti, and the USA.
7. Nonviolence is even being taught in some American schools and as early as kindergarten.
8. Relatively nonviolent and peaceful societies with nonviolent conflict resolution institutions and mechanisms actually exist, as demonstrated through documentation by archaeology, cultural anthropology, and history.

QUESTIONS

1. In what sense and why are violence/war and nonviolence/peace complementary?
2. Why have many people and institutions tended to focus on violence/war to the neglect or even exclusion of nonviolence/peace?
3. Can violence, aggression, and war be reduced or even eliminated?
4. Are the human rights, nonviolence, peace, feminist, and environmental movements effective?
5. What are their limitations?
6. What would a postviolent and postwar society be like?
7. Are there precedents of relatively nonviolent and peaceful societies in the historical and anthropological records which may serve as heuristic models?
8. Are there precedents for the transformation of societies from violence and war to nonviolence and peace?
9. What are the roles of the natural sciences, social sciences, humanities, and professions (e.g., medicine, law, social work) in promoting nonviolence and peace?
10. What are their roles in promoting violence and war?

REQUIRED READING

TEXT: Glossop Chs. XIV-XVII.

Armengol, Vicenc Fisas, 1991, "Ten Bases for a Culture of Peace," in Peace Culture and Society: Transnational Research and Dialogue, Elise Boulding, et al., eds., Boulder, CO: Westview Press,, pp. 119-123.

Bedford, David, and Thom Workman, 1997, "The Great Law of Peace: Alternative Inter-Nation(al) Practices and the Iroquoian Confederacy," Alternatives 22(1):87-111.

Fahey, Joseph J., 1990, "Peace Studies and the American Ethos" Peace Review 2(2):12-15.

Lumsden, Malvern, 1997, "Breaking the Cycle of Violence," Journal of Peace Research 34(3):377-383.

Paige, Glenn D., 1996, ""To Leap Beyond Yet Nearer Bring": From War to Peace to Non-Violence to Non-Killing," Peace Research 28(4):1-18.

CASE

Huddleston, John, 1992, Achieving Peace by the Year 2000: A Twelve Point Proposal, Oxford, England: One World.

ARTICLES

Anderson, Gordon L., 1988, "The Philosophical Basis of Peace Studies: Theoretical Confusion and the Process of Integration," International Social Science Review 63(2):60-70.

Aquino, Corazon C., 1997, "Seeds of Nonviolence, Harvest of Peace: The Philippines Revolution in 1986," in Violence: From Biology to Society, J.S. Grisolia, et al., eds., New York, NY: Elsevier, pp. 227-234.

Asspeslagh, Robert, and Robin J. Burns, 1996, "Approaching Peace Through Education: Background, Concepts and Theoretical Issues," in Three Decades of Peace Education Around the World: An Anthology, Robin J. Burns and Robert Aspeslagh, eds., New York, NY: Garland Publishing, Inc., pp. 25-70.

Barrett, Cathy, 1996, "Peace Profile: Stephen Biko," Peace Review 8(4):585-590.

Berdal, Mats R., 1993, "Whither UN Peacekeeping?," Adelphia Paper 281.

Birn, Donald S., 1989, "What of Peace History? Lessons from World War I," in Peace: Meanings, Politics, Strategies, Linda Rennie Forcey, ed., Westport, CT: Praeger, pp. 189-195.

Boulding, Elise, 1989, "Can Peace Be Imagined?," in Peace: Meanings, Politics, Strategies, Linda Rennie Forcey, ed., Westport, CT: Praeger, pp. 73-84.

Boulding, Kenneth E., 1990, "The Role of Organized Nonviolence in Achieving Stable Peace," in Perspectives on Nonviolence, K.V. Kool, ed., New York, NY: Springer-Verlag, pp. 3-13.

Brinkley, Douglas, 1995, "Jimmy Carter's Modest Quest for Peace," Foreign Affairs 74(6):90-100.

Burguieres, Mary K., 1990, "Feminist Approaches to Peace: Another Step for Peace Studies," Millennium 19(1):1-18.

Chatfield, Charles, 1986, "Concepts of Peace in History," Peace & Change 11(2):11-21.

Chekki, Dan A., 1993, "Some Traditions of Nonviolence and Peace," International Journal on World Peace X(3):47-54.

Delbruck, Jost, 1987, "Peace Through Emerging International Law," in The Quest for Peace, Raimo Vayrynen, et al., eds., Newbury Park, CA: Sage, pp. 127-143.

Diehl, Paul F., Daniel Druckman, and James Wall, 1998, "International Peacekeeping and Conflict Resolution: A Taxonomic Analysis with Implications," Journal of Conflict Resolution 42(1):33-55.

Eckhardt, William, 1986, "The Radical Critique of Peace Research: A Brief Review," Peace Research 18(3):51-62.

Elias, Robert, 1990, "University Peace Studies: Strategies for Program Development," Peace & Change 15(3):345-360.

Ember, Carol R., Melvin Ember, and Bruce Russett, 1992, "Peace Between Participatory Polities: A Cross-Cultural Test of the "Democracies Rarely Fight Each Other" Hypothesis," World Politics 44(4):573-599.

Etzioni, Amitai, 1967, "Toward a Sociological Theory of Peace," in Sociological Theories: Inquiries and Paradigms, Llewellyn Gross, ed., New York, NY: Harper and Row, pp. 267-293.

Fisher, Dietrich, 1990, "An Active Peace Policy and the Future," Futures Research Quarterly 6(3):45-63.

Forcey, Linda Rennie, 1989, "Introduction to Peace Studies," in Peace: Meanings, Politics, Strategies, Linda Rennie Forcey, ed., Westport, CT: Praeger, pp. 3-14.

Galtung, Johan, 1986, "Peace Theory: An Introduction," in World Encyclopedia of Peace, Ervin Laszlo and Jong Youl Yoo, eds., New York, NY: Pergamon Press, Volume 2, pp. 251-260.

Galtung, Johan, 1995, "Nonviolence and Deep Culture: Some Hidden Obstacles," Peace Research 27(3):21-37.

Garfinkle, Adam, 1995, "Aftermyths of the Antiwar Movement," Orbis 39(4):503-516.

Gielen, Uwe P., 1995, "Traditional Buddhist Ladakh- A Society at Peace," in Violence and the Prevention of Violence, Leonore Loeb Adler and Florence L. Denmark, eds., Westport, CT: Praeger, pp. 191-204.

Goldstein, Arnold P., 1992, "Aggression Reduction Strategies," Peace Review 4(3)?

Gregor, Thomas, 1996, "Introduction," in A Natural History of Peace, Thomas Gregor, ed., Nashville, TN: Vanderbilt University Press, pp. ix-xxiii.

Guanson, Lou Ann Ha'aheo, 1997, "Non-Violent Elements in Hawai'ian Culture," Peace Research 29(3):63-73.

Harle, Vilho, 1989, "Towards a Comparative Study of Peace Ideas: Goals, Approaches and Problems," Journal of Peace Research 26(4):341-351.

Harris, Ian M., 1990, "Principles of Peace Pedagogy," Peace & Change 15(3):254-271.

Hauss, Charles, 1989, "A Rational Basis for Hope," in Peace: Meanings, Politics, Strategies, Linda Rennie Forcey, ed., Westport, CT: Praeger, pp. 203-217.

Herman, Theodore, 1990, "Seven Forms of Nonviolence for Peace Research: A Conceptual Framework," in Perspectives on Nonviolence, K.V. Kool, ed., New York, NY: Springer-Verlag, pp. 140-149.

The International Institute for Strategic Studies, 1993, "Peacekeeping, Peacemaking or Peace-Enforcement?," Strategic Survey 1992-1993, pp. 31-39.

Kemp, Graham, 1988, "Nonviolence: A Biological Perspective," in A Just Peace Through Transformation, Chadwick Alger and Michael Stohl, eds., Boulder, CO: Westview Press, pp. 112-126.

Kende, Istvan, 1989, "The History of Peace: Concept and Organizations from the Late Middle Ages to the 1870s," Journal of Peace Research 26(3):233-247.

Kool, V.K., 1993, "Toward a Theory of the Psychology of Nonviolence," in Nonviolence: Social and Psychological Issues, V.K. Kool, Landham, MD: University Press of America, pp. 1-24.

Krieger, David, 1993, "Ending the Scourge of War," Peace Review 5:3?

Last, David M., 1995-1996, "Peace Keeping Doctrine and Conflict Resolution Techniques," Armed Forces and Society 22(2):187-210.

The Lester B. Pearson Canadian International Peacekeeping Training Centre, 1998, "Global Situation Report of Current United Nations Peacekeeping and Related Operations," Peacekeeping and International Relations 27(2).

Millennium: Journal of International Studies 1997, 26(3), special issue "How Wars End."

Nagler, Michael N., 1990, "Nonviolence as New Science," in Perspectives on Nonviolence, V.K. Kool, ed., New York, NY: Springer-Verlag, pp. 131-139.

Naidu, M.V., 1995, "The Philosophical and Psycho-Behavioral Foundations of Ghandism," Peace Research 27(3):1-19.

Naidu, M.V., 1996, "A Proposal for a General Peace Theory," Peace Research 28(3):122,

Nieberg, Hal, 1989, "Problems of War and Peace are Inseparable," in Peace: Meanings, Politics, Strategies, Linda Rennie Forcey, ed., Westport, CT: Praeger, pp. 27-37.

Nisan, Mordechai, 1990, "The Camp David Legacy," Global Affairs V(1):96-115.

Oliner, Pearl M., Samuel P. Oliner, and Mary B. Gruber, 1991, "Altruism and Peace: Some Propositions Based on Gender and Cross-Cultural Comparisons," International Journal on World Peace VIII(1):35-44.

Orme, John, 1997, "The Utility of Force in a World of Scarcity," International Security 22(3):138-167.

Ray, James Lee, 1998, "Does Democracy Cause Peace?," Annual Review of Political Science 1: .

Rieff, David, 1994, "The Illusions of Peacekeeping," World Policy Journal XI(3):1-18.

Roberts, Adam, 1994, "The Crisis in UN Peacekeeping," Survival 36(3):93-120.

Rosenblatt, Lionel A., 1995, "Humanitarian Emergencies: Ten Steps to Save Lives and Resources," SAIS Review XV(2):91-109.

Ruggie, John Gerard, 1994, "Peacekeeping and U.S. Interests," The Washington Quarterly 17(4):175-184.

Schweller, Randall L., 1992, "Domestic Structure and Preventive War: Are Democracies More Pacific?," World Politics 44(2):235-269.

Shtromas, Alexandras, 1995, "What is Peace and How Could it Be Achieved?," International Journal on World Peace XII(1):15-58.

Sigler, John, 1993, "The Continuing Search for Peace: The Changing Agenda for Peace Studies in the 1990s," Peace Research 25(1):25-37.

Sorensen, Georg, 1992, "Utopianism in Peace Research: The Ghandian Heritage," Journal of Peace Research 29(2):135-144.

Staub, Ervin, 1992, "The Creation and Evolution of Caring, Connection, and Nonaggression," in The Roots of Evil: The Origins of Genocide and Other Group Violence, Ervin Staub, New York, NY: Cambridge University Press, pp. 274-283.

Survival 1990 XXXII(3) (special issue on "UN Peace-Keeping").

Tarzi, Shah M., 1997, "The Dilemma of Collective Security: A Theoretical Critique," International Relations XIII(6):43-53.

Wehr, Paul, 1995, "Commentary: Toward a History of Nonviolence," Peace and Change 20(1):82-93.

Wiberg, Hakan, 1981, "JPR 1964-1980- What Have We Learnt about Peace?," Journal of Peace Research XVIII(2):111-148.

BOOKS

Ackerman, Peter, and Christopher Kruegler, 1994, Strategic Nonviolent Conflict: The Dynamics of People Power in the Twentieth Century, Westport, CT: Praeger.

Alexander, George, 1991, Avoiding War: Problems in Crisis Management, Boulder, CO: Westview Press.

Alonso, Harriet Hyman, 1993, Peace as a Women's Issue: A History of the U.S. Movement for World Peace and Women's Rights, Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press.

Avruch, Kevin, Peter W. Black, and Joseph A. Scimecca, 1991, Conflict Resolution: Cross-Cultural Perspectives, New York, NY: Greenwood Press.

Brock-Utne, Bright, 1985, Educating for Peace: A Feminist Perspective, New York, NY: Pergamon Press.

Carlsson-Paige, Nancy, and Diane E. Levin, 1985, Helping Young Children Understand Peace, War, and the Nuclear Threat, Washington, D.C.: National Association for Education for Young People.

Chatfield, Charles, and Ruzanne Iliukhina, eds., 1994, Peace/MIR: An Anthology of Historic Alternatives to War, Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press.

Crow, R.E., Philip Grant, and S.E. Ibrahim, eds., 1990, Arab Nonviolent Political Struggle in the Middle East, Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner.

Dahl, Arthur, 1990, Making Peace: Photographs and Interviews with Peacemakers in the United States, New York, NY: Sheed and Ward.

Fahey, Joseph J., and Richard Armstrong, eds., 1992, A Peace Reader: Essential Readings on War, Non-Violence, and World Order, Mahwah, NY: Paulist Press.

Fry, Douglas P., and Kaj Bjorkqvist, eds., 1997, Cultural Variation in Conflict Resolution: Alternatives to Violence, Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers.

Galtung, Johan, 1996, Peace by Peaceful Means: Peace and Conflict, Development and Civilization, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Gandhi, Mohandas K., and Anand T. Higorani, 1970, The Science of Satyagraha, Bombay, India: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan.

Hawkley, Louise, and James C. Juhnke, eds., 1993, Nonviolent America: History Through the Eyes of Peace, North Newton, KS: Bethel College.

Herman, A. L., 1998, Community, Violence, and Peace: Aldo Leopold, Mohandas K. Gandhi, Martin Luther King, Jr., and Gautama the Buddha in the Twenty-First Century, Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.

Holmes, Robert L., 1990, Nonviolence in Theory and Practice, Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

Howell, Signe, and Roy Willis, eds., 1989, Societies at Peace: Anthropological Perspectives, New York, NY: Routledge.

Kacowicz, Arie M., 1998, Zones of Peace in the Third World: South America and West Africa in Comparative Perspective, Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.

Keefe, Thomas, and Ron E. Roberts, 1991, Realizing Peace: An Introduction to Peace Studies, Ames, IO: Iowa State University Press.

King, Martin Luther, Jr., 1995, Core Curriculum of King in Nonviolence, Atlanta, GA: Martin Luther King, Jr., Center for the Study of Nonviolent Social Change.

Knudsen-Hoffman, Gene, 1988, Ways Out: The Book of Changes for Peace, Santa Barbara, CA: John Daniel.

Kool, V.K., 1990, Perspectives on Nonviolence, New York, NY: Springer-Verlag.

Kraft, Kenneth, ed., 1992, Inner Peace, World Peace: Essays on Buddhism and Nonviolence, Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.

Kriesberg, Louis, 1998, Constructive Conflicts: From Escalation to Resolution, Lanham, MD: Rowan and Littlefield Publishers, Inc.

Mayer, Peter, ed., 1966, The Pacifist Conscience: Classic Writings on Alternatives to Violent Conflict From Ancient Times to the Present, New York, NY: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.

McCarthy, Ronald M., and Gene Sharp, 1997, Nonviolent Action: A Research Guide, Hamden, CT: Garland Publishing Co.

Merton, Thomas, 1965, Ghandi on Nonviolence, New York, NY: New Directions Publishing Corp.

Montagu, Ashley, ed., 1978, Learning Non-Aggression: The Experience of Non-Literate Societies, New York, NY: Oxford University press.

Paige, Glenn D., eds., 1991, Buddhism and Nonviolent Global Problem-Solving, Honolulu, HI: Center for Global Nonviolence and Matsunaga Institute for Peace.

Paige, Glenn D., and Sarah Gilliatt, eds., 1991, Nonviolence in Hawaii's Spiritual Traditions, Honolulu, HI: Center for Global Nonviolence and Matsunaga Institute for Peace.

Rapoport, Anatol, 1992, Peace: An Idea Whose Time Has Come, Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press.

Rock, Stephen R., 1989, Why Peace Breaks Out: Rapproachment in Historical Perspective, Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press.

Rodman, Margaret, and Matthew Cooper, eds., 1979, The Pacification of Melanesia, Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press.

Rothschild, Robert, 1988, Peace For Our Time, Washington, D.C.: Brassey's Defense Publishers.

Satha-Anand, Chaiwat, Glenn D. Paige, and Sarah Gillaitt, eds., 1992, Islam and Nonviolence, Honolulu, HI: Center for Global Nonviolence and Matsunaga Institute for Peace.

Satha-Anand, Chaiwat, and Michael True, eds., 1998, The Frontiers of Nonviolence, Honolulu, HI: Center for Global Nonviolence with Peace Information Center in Bangkok and the Nonviolence Commission of the International Peace research Organization.

Sharp, Gene, 1980, The Politics of Nonviolent Action, Boston, MA: Porter Sargent Publishers.

Smith, Chandler, 1992, Rationale for Nonviolence, San Francisco, CA: Forum Books.

Smoker, Paul, Ruth Davies, and Barbara Munske, 1990, A Reader in Peace Studies, New York, NY: Pergamon.

Sponsel, Leslie E., and Thomas Gregor, eds., 1994, The Anthropology of Peace and Nonviolence, Boulder, CO: Westview Press.

Tolstoy, Leo, 1967, Tolstoy's Writings on Civil Disobedience and Non-Violence, New York, NY: Bergman Publishers.

True, Michael, 1992, To Construct Peace: 30 More Justice Seeker, Peace Makers, Mystio, CT: Twenty-Third Publications.

Vanderhear, Gerald A., 1990, Active Nonviolence: A Way of Personal peace, Mystic, CT: Twenty-third Publication.

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49. Crisis Management and Conflict Resolution

MAIN POINTS

1. Crises and conflicts are inevitable, reflecting competing interests of different individuals and groups.
2. However, many argue that violence is not necessarily an inevitable recourse for crisis management and conflict resolution.
3. Negotiation, mediation, and arbitration are among the nonviolent approaches to crisis management and conflict resolution.
4. Some argue that conflicts and crises may be constructive as well as destructive.
5. Failures as well as successes in crisis management and conflict resolution need to be critically assessed to better understand and deal with these matters.
6. Also we need to better understand the diversity of crisis management and conflict resolution approaches among different individuals, institutions, cultures, and nations.

QUESTIONS

1. What is a crisis?
2. Are crisis and conflict synonymous?
3. What are the levels, components, contexts, temporal and spatial dimensions, patterns, processes, and trends in crises?
4. In what ways may crises be destructive?
5. In what ways may crises be constructive?
6. What is crisis management?
7. What is conflict resolution?
8. What are the differences between negotiation, mediation, and arbitration?
9. What are the advantages and disadvantages of violent and nonviolent approaches to conflict resolution?
10. How do different persons, institutions, cultures, and nations deal with crises, crisis management, and conflict resolution?
11. What crises have been successfully managed?
12. What crises have not been successfully managed?
13. What are the roles of governmental and non-governmental organizations in crises, crisis management, and conflict resolution?
14. Can crises be prevented?

REQUIRED READING

TEXT: Kriesberg Chs. 1-11.

Bonta, Bruce D., 1996, "Conflict Resolution Among Peaceful Societies: The Culture of Peacefulness," Journal of Peace Research 33(4):403-420.

George, Alexander L., 1991, "Findings and Recommendations," Avoiding War: Problems of Crisis Management, Alexander L. George, ed., Boulder, CO: Westview Press, pp. 545-566.

ARTICLES

Arias, Oscar, 1997, "Esquipulas II: The Management of a Regional Conflict," Cultural Variation in Conflict Resolution: Alternatives to Violence, Douglas P. Fry and Kaj Bjorkqvist, eds., Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers, pp. 147-158.

Avruch, Kevin, and Peter W. Black, 1990, "Ideas Of Human Nature in Contemporary Conflict Resolution Theory," Negotiation Journal 6(3):221-228.

Etzioni, Amitai, 1995, "Mediation as a World Role for the U.S.," The Washington Quarterly 18(3):75-87.

Fry, Douglas P., and C. Brooks Fry, 1997, "Culture and Conflict Resolution Models: Exploring Alternatives to Violence," in Cultural Variation in Conflict Resolution: Alternatives to Violence, Douglas P. Fry and Kaj Bjorkqvist, eds., Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers, pp. 9-23.

George, Alexander L., 1991, "A Provisional Theory of Crisis Management," Avoiding War: Problems of Crisis Management, Alexander L. George, ed., Boulder, CO: Westview Press, pp. 22-27.

Greenhouse, Carol J., 1985, "Mediation: A Comparative Approach," Man 20:90-114.

Havel, Vaclav, 1995, "The Politics of Responsibility," World Policy Journal XII(3):81-87.

Howard, Alan, 1990, "Dispute Management in Rotuma," Journal of Anthropological Research 46:263-292.

Klicperova, Martina, Ivo K. Feierabend, and C. Richard Hofstetter, 1997, "Nonviolent Conflict Resolution and Civic Culture: The Case of Czechoslovakia," in Cultural Variation in Conflict Resolution: Alternatives to Violence, Douglas P. Fry and Kaj Bjorkqvist, eds., Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers, pp. 173-182.

Kock, Klaus-Friedrich, John A. Sodergren, and Susan Campbell, 1976, "Political and Psychological Correlates of Conflict Management: A Cross-Cultural Study," Law and Society Review 10:443-466.

Landau, Simha F., 1997, "Conflict Resolution in a Highly Stressful Society: The Case of Israel," in Cultural Variation in Conflict Resolution: Alternatives to Violence, Douglas P. Fry and Kaj Bjorkqvist, eds., Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers, pp. 123-136.

Pruitt, Dean G., and William Rick Fry, 1989, "Conflict Escalation and Problem Solving," in Peace: Meanings, Politics, Strategies, Linda Reniie Forcey, ed., Westport, CT: Praeger, pp. 149-162.

Wendt, David, 1994, "The Peacemakers: Lessons of Conflict Resolution for the Cold-War World," The Washington Quarterly 17(3):163-178.

Zartman, I. William, 1995, "Dynamics and Constraints in Negotiations in Internal Conflicts," Elusive Peace: Negotiating an End to Civil Wars, I. William Zartman, ed., Washington, D.C.: The Brookings Institution, pp. 3-30.

BOOKS

Carnegie Commission on Preventing Deadly Conflict, 1997, Preventing Deadly Conflict, New York, NY: Carnegie Corporation.

George, Alexander L., ed., 1991, Avoiding War: Problems of Crisis Management, Boulder, CO: Westview Press.

Zartman, I. William, ed., 1995, Elusive Peace: Negotiating an End to Civil Wars, Washington, D.C.: The Brookings Institution.

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50. Human Rights

MAIN POINTS

1. Human rights refer to those fundamental things which every human being should enjoy (e.g., religious freedom) and those which no human being should ever suffer from (e.g., torture), simply by virtue of being human.
2. Although human rights have ancient roots, they have mostly developed since World War II, mainly in response to the atrocities of the Nazis.
3. Much progress has been made in human rights in the 50 years since the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights with subsequent conventions and agreements as well as numerous and diverse NGOs like Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch, etc.
4. However, the main weaknesses of human rights are that governments which are primarily responsible for promoting and defending them are often their violators; governments accused of human rights abuses defend themselves by raising issues of Western moral imperialism, cultural relativism, and national sovereignty; most work on human rights tends to be reactive while proactive aspects are neglected; and the proximate operations of human rights are within a win-lose rather than win-win framework.
5. Human rights may be the most fundamental precondition for a nonviolent and peaceful society and world, because if they were really effectively honored, promoted, and protected then conflict, violence (direct and structural), and war would be greatly reduced. 6. Human rights are necessary considerations in peace, security, strategy, and related studies.

QUESTIONS

1. How are human rights defined?
2. What is the relation between human rights and violence including war?
3. What are the anthropological, philosophical, ethical, moral, religious, cultural, historical, political, legal, and scientific foundations of human rights?
4. What is the status of human rights in the world?
5. Which cultures, nations, and political systems have the best human rights record?
6. Which cultures, nations, and political systems have the worst human rights record?
7. What are the achievements and limitations of the human rights movement?
8. What reactions should and can be taken to respond to human rights abuses and violations?
9. How should and can the world respond to crimes against humanity like genocide?
10. What actions should and can be taken toward reducing and preventing human rights violations?
11. What is the future of human rights?

REQUIRED READING

Donnelly, Jack, 1992, "Human Rights in the New World Order," World Policy Journal IX(2):249-277.

Lawson, Edward, 1996, "Introductory Essay," in his Encyclopedia of Human Rights, New York, NY: Taylor and Francis, pp. xix-xxxviii.

Said, Abdul Aziz, and Laura A. Barnitz, 1990, "The Dialogue Between Peace and Human Rights," Peace Review 2(1):9-13.

Shestack, Jerome J., 1998, "The Philosophic Foundations of Human Rights," Human Rights Quarterly 20(2):201-234.

ARTICLES

Bloomfield, Lincoln P., 1994, "The Premature Burial of Global Law and Order: Looking Beyond the Three Cases of Hell," The Washington Quarterly 17(3):145-161.

Burkhalter, Holly, 1992, "Moving Human Rights to Center Stage," World Policy Journal IX(3):417-428.

Burkhalter, Holly, 1994, "The "Costs" of Human Rights," World Policy Journal XI(1):39-49.

Conteh-Morgan, Earl, 1994, "The Military and Human Rights in a Post-Cold War Africa," Armed Forces and Society 21(1):69-87.

Cullen, Robert, 1992-1993, "Human Rights Quandry," Foreign Affairs 71(5):79-88.

Etzioni, Amitai, 1997, "The End of Cross-Cultural Relativism," Alternatives 22(2):177-189.

Formigari, Lia, 1974, "The Right to Violence: From Locke to Lenin," Violence and Aggression in the History of Ideas, Philip P. Wiener and John Fisher, eds., New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, pp. 221-233.

Goulet, Denis, 1992, "International Ethics and Human Rights," Alternatives 17(2):231-246.

Gurr, Ted Robert, and James R. Scarritt, 1989, "Minorities Rights at Risk: A Global Survey," Human Rights Quarterly 11:375-405.

Howard, Michael, 1997-1998, "Human Rights and the Culture Wars: Globalization and the Universality of Human Rights," International Journal LIII(1):94-112.

International Institute for Strategic Studies, 1994, "Human Rights and Security," Strategic Survey 1993-1994, pp. 31-41.

McCormick, James M., and Neil J. Mitchell, 1997, "Human Rights Violations, Umbrella Concepts, and Empirical Analyses," World Politics 49(4):510-525.

Mendlovitz, Saul H., 1998 "Statement of the International Peoples' Tribunal on Human Rights and the Environment: Sustainable Development in the Context of Globalization," Alternatives 23:109-146.

Messer, Ellen R., 1993, "Anthropology and Human Rights," Annual Review of Anthropology 22:221-249.

Nathan, Andrew J., 1997, "China: Getting Human Rights Right," The Washington Quarterly 20(2):135-151.

Perry, Michael J., 1997, "Are Human Rights Universal? The Relativist Challenge and Related Matters," Human Rights Quarterly 19(3):461-509.

Peterson, V. Spike, 1990, "Whose Rights? A Critique of the "Givens" in Human Rights Discourse," Alternatives XV(3):303-344.

Roberts, Brad, 1990, "Human Rights and International Security," The Washington Quarterly 13(2):65-75.

Said, Abdul Aziz, and Laura A. Barnitz, 1990, "The Dialogue Between Peace and Human Rights," Peace Review 2(1):9-13.

Wright, Robin, 1988, "Anthropological Presuppositions of Indigenous Advocacy," Annual Review of Anthropology 17:365-390.

Wronka, Joseph, 1993, "Teaching Human Rights in the Social Sciences Curriculum," in Nonviolence: Social and Psychological Issues, V.K. Kool, ed., Lanham, MD: University Press of America, pp. 259-265.

BOOKS

Amnesty International, 1992, Human Rights Violations Against Indigenous Peoples, New York, NY: Amnesty International.

An-Na'im, Abdullahi Ahmed, ed., 1992, Human Rights in Cross-Cultural Perspective: A Quest for Consensus, Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press.

Berting, Jan, et al., eds., 1990, Human Rights in a Pluralist World: Individuals and Collectivities, Wesport, CT: Meckler.

Bodley, John, 1999, Victims of Progress, Mountain View, CA: Mayfield Publishing.

Brownlie,Ian, ed., 1981, Basic Documents on Human Rights, Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press.

Burger, Julian, 1987, Report from the Frontier: The State of the World's Indigenous Peoples, Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Zed Books.

Cranston, Maurice, 1962, What Are Human Rights?, New York, NY: Basic Books.

Donnelly, Jack, 1989, Universal Human Rights in Theory and Practice, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.

Dwyer, Kevin, 1991, Arab Voices: The Human Rights Debate in the Middle East, Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

Goldinger, Milton, ed., 1974, Punishment and Human Rights, Cambridge, MA: Schenkman Publishing Co.

Ishay, Micheline R., ed., 1997, The Human Rights Reader, New York, NY: Routledge.

Miller, Marc S., et al., eds., 1993, State of the Peoples: A Global Human Rights Report on Societies in Danger, Boston, MA: Beacon Press.

Milne, A.J.M., 1986, Human Rights and Human Diversity, New York, NY: Macmillan.

Nickel, James W., 1987, Making Sense of Human Rights: Philosophical Reflections on the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, Berkeley, CA: University of California.

Ortiz, R.D., 1984, Indians of the Americas: Self-Determination and Human Rights, New York, NY: Praeger.

Stephen, Lynn, 1994, Hear My Testimony: Maria Teresa Tula, Human Rights Activist of El Salvador, Boston, MA: South End Press.